” All the data are needed, including safety and conflicts of interest, and clinically relevant measures of efficacy, both while on and following withdrawal from therapy. Results must be clinically meaningful, reproducible, and understandable. Only then can organizations such

as the Cochrane Collaboration reliably estimate the benefit of new therapies. Approval of new drugs is a huge commitment for government agencies. Because many are for the same disease, “cost-effectiveness analysis” has become a “business of its own” used not only by treating physicians, but also health-insurance agencies and stockbrokers. In Britain, where Enzalutamide chemical structure government promises “universal” access to treatment, the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence was established partly to assess cost-effectiveness of new treatments and technologies and unify access across all health districts.8 The downside of limiting access to agents not shown to be cost-effective is their unavailability to specific individuals anxious for a reprieve from fatal illness (e.g., sorafenib), if only for a few months.9 Thereby, a conflict arises between what is cost-effective for a population and that which is not cost-effective, but still has seemingly tangible benefits for an individual. Though some

of these expensive selleck inhibitor medications may make only minor differences in life expectancy, with time, these small, incremental advances may eventually lead to dramatic improvements in outcome (e.g., treatments for breast cancer). This review focuses 上海皓元 first on some mistakes and/or misinterpretations of clinical trials since the 1970s that may have interfered with the production of reliable data (for the most part, from my own experiences). An RTC is the most rigorous assessment of a new agent’s

therapeutic effect. Randomization is now done in blocks of 4, 6, 10, and so on, depending on expected recruit numbers. When possible, both patient and investigator should be blinded to the randomization. In terms of clinical-trial expertise, I was very naïve in 1968, when part of my job was to monitor patients in follow-up in the 5-year trial of azathioprine for primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC). Neither single nor double blinding had been considered in the trial design, and no formal patient-evaluation process had been outlined! Fortunately, there were only 45 recruits—we had not calculated the sample size needed to show a difference in outcome (i.e., death) at 5 years! All documentation was with pen and paper. Every result had to be accurately transferred from many different sheets of paper, thereby limiting the reliability of the reporting—desktop computers did not exist back then.