AMPK is a highly preserved sensor of cellular energy status, and appears to exist in essentially all eukaryotes as heterotrimeric complexes composed of a catalytic α subunit and regulatory β and γ subunits. The α subunit contains the kinase domain, with the conserved threonine residue that is the target for upstream kinases [liver kinase B1 (LKB1) and Ca2+-activated calmodulin-dependent kinase Talazoparib supplier kinases (CaMKKs)] located within the activation loop. Phosphorylation at Thr172 is required for kinase activity and function in all species from yeast to man, and with the human kinase,

causes >100-fold activation [3]. In mammals, all three subunits have multiple isoforms encoded by distinct genes (α1, α2; β1, β2; γ1, γ2, γ3), which assemble to form up to 12 heterotrimeric combinations [4]. The functions of the different subunit isoforms remain unclear, although there is tissue-specific expression of some isoforms, and there is evidence that different isoforms may target complexes to specific subcellular locations. Because the energy status of the cell is a crucial factor in all aspects of cell function, it is not surprising that AMPK has umpteen

downstream targets whose phosphorylation mediates dramatic changes in cell metabolism, cell growth, and other functions. Obesity PD-0332991 in vivo and the metabolic syndrome represent a major health problem in both Western and developing countries. Considering the role of AMPK in regulating energy balance at both the cellular and whole-body levels, this kinase occupies a pivotal position in studies regarding

obesity, diabetes, and the metabolic syndrome [5]. By direct phosphorylation of metabolic enzymes and transcription factors, AMPK switches on catabolic pathways, such as the uptake of glucose and fatty acids, and their metabolism by mitochondrial oxidation and glycolysis. In addition, AMPK switches off anabolic pathways, such as the synthesis of glucose, glycogen, and lipids in the liver. By promoting muscle glucose uptake and metabolism and by inhibiting hepatic gluconeogenesis, AMPK activation Tobramycin can explain the antidiabetic action of metformin. Type 2 diabetes is primarily caused by insulin resistance, which is strongly associated with excess triglyceride storage in liver and muscle. By switching off the synthesis of fatty acids and triglycerides and enhancing fat oxidation, AMPK activation might also explain the insulin-sensitizing action of metformin. The uncontrolled proliferation of cancer cells is supported by a corresponding adjustment of energy metabolism. Nowadays, altered metabolism of tumor cells is widely recognized as an emerging hallmark and a potential drug target in cancer cells. Protein synthesis is the best-characterized process regulated by the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). mTORC1 plays a key role in translational control by phosphorylating lots of translation regulators, including S6 kinase 1 (S6K1) [6].