One possible explanation

for these findings may be that bolder individuals are more likely to be present closer to the roads/paths, as has been noted for burrowing owls Athene cunicularia (Carrete & Tella, 2010). Bolder individuals may be able to exploit resources closer to paths/roads despite exposure to greater amounts of human traffic. Our study emphasizes the importance of monitoring for urban adapters. Most people represent a low risk to the squirrels in PCVST, and the squirrels consequently continue to forage when approached. However, being sensitive to subtle cues in the behaviour of their human co-inhabitants is likely to contribute to the success of Venetoclax manufacturer eastern grey squirrels in highly urbanized habitats. There is nothing that should be inherently less ‘risky’ about a pedestrian that is 2 m away and moving on a footpath than one that is the same distance away, but moving on the grass, except that people rarely walk

on the grass at PCVST. Rodriguez-Prieto et al. (2009) found that blackbirds Cobimetinib Turdus merula in urban parks in Madrid with high exposure to humans had short FIDs, but these increased when approached by a novel ‘predator’ in the form of a radio-controlled vehicle. These data suggest that urban animals will modify their assessment of risk according to familiarity of behaviour and objects. We have identified cues that are likely to be important for risk perception by an urban animal species monitoring its environment. Together with direction of attention of people, urban squirrels were more reactive to pedestrians that showed a divergence from ‘usual’ behaviour (e.g. pedestrians entering areas which are usually human-free), even when not associated with closer approach or changes in speed. In addition to being arboreal (which can include use of anthropogenic structures), which minimizes vulnerability to diurnal terrestrial ‘predators’ (see Herr, Schley & Roper, 2009), general trophic and social flexibility (Baumgartner, 1943; Don, 1983; Koprowski, 2005) may help explain why eastern grey 上海皓元 squirrels

are successful urban adapters. Further research should consider how, despite habituation to human presence, urban taxa modulate their reactions according to subtle differences in human behaviour. Assessment of, and potentially habituation to, human activity is an important criterion for successful urban adapters and urban exploiters. In the face of increasing urbanization across the globe, the life history and behavioural attributes of those taxa that are good urban adapters warrants further study (Bateman & Fleming, 2012). P.W.B. thanks G. Gilson and family for their hospitality when he was in New York. Appendix S1. Map of PCVST. “
“It is unclear how predicted rises in ambient temperature associated with climate change will impact upon the survivorship of oviparous reptiles.