Retinoic acid also plays a key role in the balance of inflammatory Th17 cells and suppressive Treg by inhibiting the formation of Th17 cells and enhancing the expression of FOXP3 through a STAT3/STAT5-independent signaling pathway 70. Several studies in humans have demonstrated that in healthy individuals, if an immune response to common environmental allergens is detectable, TR1 cells specific for such allergens represent the dominant subset 3, 6–8. Both healthy and allergic individuals Forskolin datasheet display allergen-specific Th1, Th2 and TR1 cells that recognize the same T-cell epitopes. Accordingly, depending on the predominant

subset and the balance between Th2 and TR1 cells, the individuals may develop allergy (Th2 predominance) or recovery (TR1 predominance). Two human models

have demonstrated that high-dose exposure to the offending allergens lead to tolerance induction 7, 71. Beekeepers are naturally highly exposed to bee venom allergens during the beekeeping season due to an increased number of bee stings. Kinase Inhibitor Library A reduction in T-cell-related cutaneous late-phase reactions and impaired capacity of allergen-specific T cells to proliferate and produce Th1 and Th2 cytokines is observed throughout the beekeeping season, reaching initial levels within 2 to 3 months after initial venom exposure. This regulation correlates with a clonal switch of venom antigen-specific Th1 and Th2 cells toward IL-10-secreting TR1 cells. In this model, histamine receptor 2 is upregulated on specific Th2 cells and plays a dual role in the suppression of allergen-stimulated T cells and contributes to increased IL-10 production 7. In another model of high-dose exposure to cat allergens, IgG4 Ab responses and IL-10-producing TR1 cells are either induced without subsequent

development of new sensitizations or asthma development 71. Supporting the protective role of Treg in allergy development, a recent study in mice has demonstrated that breast milk-mediated transfer of antigens to the neonate results in oral tolerance induction in an antigen-specific manner preventing allergic airway inflammation 72. This effect is mediated by Treg and depends on TGF-β signaling. Similarly, it was previously shown in humans that children who outgrew their milk allergy present a higher frequency of Treg and decrease in vitro proliferative responses to specific allergens than children who did not tolerate milk and displayed clinical symptoms of allergy after consumption 73. Allergen-SIT represents the single curative treatment in allergic diseases. It has been used for almost a century as a desensitization strategy by the repeated administration of increased doses of the causative allergen to induce a state of tolerance.