The authors would like to thank Anita Yeager (Dept of Anesthesiol

The authors would like to thank Anita Yeager (Dept of Anesthesiology) for editorial assistance. The authors would also like to thank the Nursing and Respiratory Therapy staffs, (in particular, Jeff Majeski, RRT and Steve Bonnet, RRT) for their patience and assistance with this work.Role of the Sponsor: The funding organizations (NIH and Respironics) Tofacitinib JAK3 had no role in the design and conduct of the study; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data; or in the preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript.
In patients with severe trauma, coagulopathy represents a frequent cause of death [1,2]. Prompt haemostatic intervention is necessary to prevent and correct life-threatening bleeding. Standard coagulation therapy consists of fresh frozen plasma (FFP), platelet concentrate and, in some countries, cryoprecipitate [3,4].

One approach proposed for preventing exsanguination has been to treat patients with a fixed ratio of FFP to red blood cells (RBC), but the optimal value of this ratio is still under debate [5-8]. It has been recently suggested that the time to intervention may also be an important determinant of patient outcomes [9,10].Our group has been exploring goal-directed coagulation management using fibrinogen concentrate and prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC), administered as early as possible according to thromboelastometric (TEM) measurements [11,12]. This approach supports timely and aggressive correction of coagulopathy.

It may also be considered as a strategy for reducing transfusion of allogeneic blood products: the need for FFP may be reduced by the administration of coagulation factors: fibrinogen, contained in fibrinogen concentrate, and factors II, VII, IX and X, contained in most PCCs. Furthermore, clinical and experimental data suggest that fibrinogen supplementation may also compensate for reduced platelet count [13,14]. Supplementation of fibrinogen may support primary haemostasis, because fibrinogen facilitates platelet aggregation by bridging platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptors [15]. In addition, the use of fibrinogen concentrate leads to increased firmness of the fibrin-based clot [16], whereas PCC administration may correct prolonged coagulation times through improved thrombin generation [17].We recently reported favourable outcomes in major trauma patients referred to our level 1 trauma centre and treated following TEM-guided haemostatic therapy with fibrinogen concentrate and PCC [12].

Observed mortality in this retrospective analysis was lower than that predicted by the Revised Injury Severity Classification Score (RISC) [18] and Trauma Injury Severity Score (TRISS) [19]. The treatment strategy eliminated time delays associated Cilengitide with standard coagulation testing and preparation of allogeneic blood products for transfusion: more than half of the patients received haemostatic therapy within an hour of admission to the emergency room (ER).

laevis 2 Material and Methods2 1 Animals and Tissue ProcessingA

laevis.2. Material and Methods2.1. Animals and Tissue ProcessingAll animals were treated according to the regulations and laws of the European Union (EU Directive 2010/63/EU) and Spain (Royal Decree 53/2013) for care and handling of animals in research, after approval from the Universities of Extremadura Verdinexor (KPT-335)? and Complutense to conduct the experiments described. The number of animals used in the present study was the minimum to guarantee the correct interpretation of the results. A total of 82 Xenopus laevis embryos, larvae, and juveniles were used (Table 1). X. laevis embryos and larvae were carefully staged in accordance with Nieuwkoop and Faber [37]. Representative developmental stages are shown in Figure 1. Adult X.

laevis were purchased from commercial suppliers (XenopusOne, Dexter, MI, USA) and the different developing specimens were obtained by breeding induced by chorionic gonadotropin (Pregnyl; Organon, West Orange, NJ, USA) and kept in tap water at 20�C25��C. Young larvae were raised on Mikropan Growth Food (Sera, Heinsberg, Germany), and older larvae and juveniles were fed liver meat. At appropriate times, embryos, larvae, and juveniles were deeply anesthetized by immersion in a 0.3% solution of tricaine methanesulfonate (MS222, pH 7.4; Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, MO, USA) and used for the different sets of experiments. Specimens were fixed by immersion for 20 hours at 4��C in 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) in PB (phosphate-buffered solution 0.1M, pH 7.4) or MEMFA (0.1M MOPS��4-morpholinopropano sulfonic acid��2mM ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid, 1mM MgSO4, 3.

7% formaldehyde). The late larvae and juveniles were perfused transcardially with 0.9% sodium chloride, followed by the same fixative solutions. The brains were dissected out and postfixed for 3 hours at 4��C.Figure 1Stereomicroscope images of selected lateral views of Xenopus laevis tailbud embryos ((a)�C(f)) and a dorsal view of a free-swimming tadpole (g) according to developmental stages (St) of Nieuwkoop and Faber [37]. Scale bars: 1mm.Table 1Number of animals investigated at different stages of development with Isl1 immunohistochemistry.Maturational aspects Batimastat in the developing X. laevis retina were examined in semithin (morphological analysis) and cryostat sections (immunohistochemical analysis). For the morphological analysis, some fixed embryos and postnatal specimens were rinsed in PB, postfixed in 2% osmium tetroxide for 2h, dehydrated in a graded series of acetone and propylene oxide, and embedded in Spurr’s resin. Serial frontal 2��m sections were cut in a Reichert Jung microtome. The sections were stained with 1% toluidine blue in 1% aqueous borax.

5 �� 0 8; 5 mg/kg LPS: 2 4 �� 0 7 mmol/l) as

5 �� 0.8; 5 mg/kg LPS: 2.4 �� 0.7 mmol/l) as selleck bio indicated in Table Table1.1. Cytokine levels increased in all sepsis groups without differences between groups (Table (Table3).3). Resting flow levels were significantly induced in both LPS + NE groups by approximately 50%, whereas 1400W remained neutral (Table (Table2).2). Compared with non-treated groups NE improved blood pressure levels effectively in both groups (95 �� 17 mmHg and 92 �� 15 mmHg; both P < 0001 to non-treated groups). Not as effective as NE 1400W also stabilized blood pressure levels in both groups (82 �� 12 and 76 �� 12 mmHg; both P < 0.001 vs. non-treated animals).Noteworthy is that only in the 1400W groups glucose substitutions were necessary to maintain adequate blood glucose levels.

NE led to even higher glucose levels as compared with the 1 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg LPS groups.Neurofunctional findingsAddressing neurofunctional parameters NE was shown to be most effective on N2-P1 amplitudes. Compared with the 1 mg/kg LPS group, evoked potential amplitudes were significantly higher throughout experiments (270 minutes: 16 �� 3 ��V vs. 12 �� 4 ��V; P < 0.05; Figure Figure1).1). In the 5 mg/kg group, NE prevented a progressive decline of amplitudes at the end of experiments (270 minutes: 14 �� 3 ��V vs. 7 �� 2 ��V; P < 0.001; Figure Figure2).2). No protective effects were seen on the P1-latencies or evoked flow velocity responses (Table (Table22).Figure 1Time course of group averaged N2-P1 amplitudes given as mean �� standard deviation for the 1 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide groups.

Norepinephrine (NE) was protective on the potential amplitudes whereas selective inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS)-inhibition …Figure 2Time course of group averaged N2-P1 amplitudes given as mean �� standard deviation for the 5 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide groups. Norepinephrine (NE) was protective on the potential amplitudes at the end of experiments whereas selective inducible …1400W led to an early and progressive decline in evoked potential amplitudes, which exceeded changes seen in the 1 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg LPS groups (Figures (Figures11 and and2).2). Similarly, P1-latencies increased to a higher extent as expected from non-treated LPS groups (Table (Table2).2). Evoked flow velocity responses dropped in relation to the decrease in evoked potential amplitudes indicating still intact coupling.

This makes the possibility of an artifact in electrical recordings unlikely.DiscussionThe functionally coupled blood flow responses are decreased during early phases of sepsis, which could contribute to brain dysfunction (sepsis-associated delirium, septic encephalopathy) in sepsis. Neither 1400W nor NE improved the neurovascular coupling. Brefeldin_A However, interpretation of the effects of the iNOS-inhibition on the neurovascular coupling is hampered by the direct adverse effects of 1400W on SEP, which were only seen under septic conditions.

The authors may also inform about any other difference in this gr

The authors may also inform about any other difference in this group of patients.Authors’ responseJordi Rello and Alejandro inhibitor DAPT secretase Rodr��guez, for the H1N1 SEMICYUC Working GroupWe appreciate the interest from Dr Alonso-Tarr��s and colleagues in our article and their insightful observations regarding management of severe influenza A (H1N1)v. We agree that several points about antiviral treatment should be clarified.Recent observational studies suggested that antiviral treatment started within 4 days after illness onset may reduce mortality among adult patients hospitalized with influenza [4] and may enhance viral load decrease and viral clearance [5]. In our study, no significant delay in the first dose of antiviral was observed in patients with comorbidities (6.5 �� 5.

0, median 6 days) versus those without comorbidities (4.5 �� 3.8, median 4 days) [2]. No differences were observed regarding the severity of illness (Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score, 12.9 �� 7.9 vs. 14.5 �� 5.9; P = 0.50), organ dysfunction (Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score, 6.9 �� 4.2 vs. 6.2 �� 2.0; P = 0.54) or mortality (26.7% vs. 23.5%; P = 0.98) between groups.In a recent multicenter observational study [6], however, receipt of antiviral drugs in <48 hours was the only variable associated with positive outcome. In our study, eight (25%) patients received antiviral therapy within 48 hours after onset of symptoms, and one patient died (12.5%) [2]. Delayed initiation of antiviral therapy (>48 hours) was associated with high risk of death (odds ratio = 2.90, 95% confidence interval = 0.

30 to 28.0) and a mortality of 29.7%.Whereas randomized controlled trials are warranted to prove clinical benefit of early antiviral therapy, current observations suggest that a delay in antiviral therapy may contribute to increase the viral load, to delay shedding and to complications. Prompt diagnosis and early antiviral prescription should therefore be considered in patients with influenza-like illness for 2009 pandemic influenza.AbbreviationsPCR: polymerase chain reaction; RT: reverse transcriptase.Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.NotesSee related research by Rello et al., http://ccforum.com/content/13/5/R148
Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) is the driving force for microvascular blood flow and thus an important determinant of tissue perfusion [1]. In its current guidelines [2], the Surviving Sepsis Campaign recommends to maintain a minimum MAP of 65 mmHg in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Apart from physiologic Anacetrapib knowledge [1], there is weak evidence to support this recommendation.

The results of all these three methods showed considerable inter-

The results of all these three methods showed considerable inter-patient variation, which suggests the use of an individualized PEEP selection sellectchem process. It has to be noted that the dynamic compliance and the compliance-volume curve method focus on the mechanics of the respiratory system, while the GI index focuses on a different aspect, namely the homogeneity of ventilation distribution. We have found no significant differences among the optimal PEEP values selected by these three methods, which indicates that homogeneity of air distribution in the lung has been somehow related to the global lung mechanics (at least to dynamic compliance). In the analysis of dynamic compliance, due to the quasi-plateau phase in the compliance-pressure curves (Figure (Figure3),3), it is difficult to claim that the PEEP level where C = Cmax is superior to the level where C = Cmax �� 98%.

The difference between these two PEEP levels can be as large as 8 mbar. The PEEP selection using the compliance-volume curves is an enhancement of the dynamic compliance method. However, categorizing the compliance-volume curves is somehow complex and not intuitive. Therefore, another parameter to select PEEP in a different aspect is still needed. In addition, the GI index is superior to dynamic lung mechanics in spontaneously breathing patients where reliable lung mechanics are difficult to obtain.The quasi-static P/V curve has also been used to individualize the setting of a proper PEEP level. But how to generate and analyze the P/V curve is still under intense debate [18].

To set PEEP at the lower inflection point plus 2 cmH2O was shown to be appropriate by Takeuchi and colleagues in a lavage-injured sheep ARDS model [23]. But there is no physiological interpretation to support it and the lower inflection point may be difficult to identify accurately [24], especially in patients with a wide distribution of opening pressures. New findings indicate that it may be better to derive PEEP from the upper inflection point of the deflation limb of the P/V curve [25]. In order to obtain quasi-static P/V curves, a normal ventilation process has to be interrupted in order to perform respiratory maneuvers, such as low-flow or super-syringe inflation. These maneuvers may be harmful to the patients due to hyper-inflation.

Besides using lung mechanics, there are other studies on open-lung PEEP selection using blood gas analysis [26-29] and imaging techniques [8,9,30], both of which are difficult Dacomitinib to implement as a continuous bedside monitoring tool. Blood gas analysis provides a way to titrate PEEP but it is an invasive and discontinuous method. Recently, more and more studies on PEEP selection use imaging techniques. CT is the gold standard for assessment of tidal volume distribution in injured lungs [4].

94) [24] Chen et al also found no difference in the postoperati

94) [24]. Chen et al. also found no difference in the postoperative usage of intravenous narcotics (Demerol) between SILC and LAC groups (10 versus 10mg, P = 0.82) found [30]. 3.5.4. Postoperative Recovery of Gastrointestinal Function Several reports [21, 23, 26, 29, 30, 37, 39] provided data regarding postoperative recovery of gastrointestinal function; Gash et al. [37], in their analysis of 20 SILC procedures, reported that a normal diet was tolerated in 4�C6 hours by 7 patients and in 12�C16 hours (overnight) by 11 patients. In 39 SILC cases [32] from multi-institutional studies reviewed, average time to flatus and bowel movement were Days 2.2 and 2.9, respectively, which is supported by 2 other reports (p.o. Day 2-3 of first flatus) [21, 30, 42, 43]. Chen et al.

, in their case-control study comparing SILS right hemicolectomy to traditional laparoscopic right hemicolectomy, also reported that there was no difference in time until flatus passage (median 2 versus 2 days) [30]. Concerning oral intake after surgeries, Boni et al. [39] reported p.o. Day 2 for first oral fluid intake. In early experience with 31 SILC cases for colon cancer, Katsuno et al. reported that the time to adequate oral intake was 1.5 �� 0.8 days [23]. 3.6. Comparative Studies: SILC versus Other Minimally Invasive Surgeries A total of 9 comparative studies [19, 22, 24, 27, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36] including 6 case-matched studies [22, 24, 27, 31, 33, 36] between SILC and other minimally invasive procedures are summarized in Tables Tables55 and and6.6. Ramos-Valadez et al.

, in their case-matched series (SILC versus LAC group), reported that mean estimated blood loss was significantly lower for the SILC group (n = 20) compared to the LAC group (n = 20) (58 versus 99mL, P < 0.007) [22]. Champagne et al., in their case-controlled study comparing SILC (n = 29) versus laparoscopic-assisted (n = 29) segmental colectomy, reported that SILC is feasible and safe but takes longer time in surgery (134 versus 104min P = 0.0002) [27]. There were no short-term outcome benefits associated with SILC. Chen et al. also did not find any significant benefits associated with right hemicolectomy by SILS approach compared to the same procedure by the multiport laparoscopic approach [30]. McNally et al., comparing 27 SILC cases with 46 LAC cases, reported relatively shorter LOS in SILC versus LAC cases (3 versus 5 days) but with no statistical significance (P = 0.

07). Gandhi et al., comparing 24 case-matched patients undergoing right hemicolectomy or anterior rectosigmoidectomy between SILC and hand-assisted laparoscopic colectomy (HALC), reported that the average operative time was longer in SILC as compared to HALC (143 versus Dacomitinib 113min P = 0.0004) while there was no difference in conversion rate or perioperative complications [33].

This leads to collision of instruments, cross-handedness, and res

This leads to collision of instruments, cross-handedness, and restriction of movement method and viewing, as well as dissecting angles. In addition, placing a suture directly through the gallbladder to provide retraction and exposure leads to some degree of bile spillage from the suture punctures with this technique. Because of instrument collision and cross-handedness, we tended to struggle at the beginning of our experience. The surgeon must cross hands to obtain a reasonable angle of distraction of the tissues in the operative field. However, in all cases in this cohort of patients, the critical view required was obtained, using a combination of traction sutures, an articulating grasper, and bendable angled laparoscope. When the critical view was compromised in one of our patients, an additional port was added to help in visualization of this view.

Thus, the critical-view principle was followed. This study was performed nonselectively on all presentations of biliary disease, whether acute or chronic. We shared some of the contraindications considered by Kuon et al. [20] such as a BMI >30kg/m2, suspicion of a malignancy, and the presence of a cystic duct stone. However, acute cholecystitis and previous upper abdominal surgery were not considered contraindications to our group. Our mean operative time was 104 minutes, longer than the time required for classical 4 ports cholecystectomy. The extra time reflected the degree of the procedure complexity and the learning curve of the operating surgeon, and there was a trend to decreasing operative time as more cases were done.

All the patients had normal liver function tests, a normal common bile duct diameter on ultrasound imaging, and no anatomic questions Anacetrapib at the time of surgery. Therefore, cholangiography was not indicated in this series and was not considered. We share the same concern as other authors on whether the approach from the umbilicus would be appropriate for cholangiography and how clear the ultimate image obtained would be, although successful use of cholangiography with a single-port approach has been reported previously [21]. Adding cholangiography would certainly increase the operative time. We did not observe any increase in pain levels or more consumption of analgesic medication either during admission or in the two-week outpatient followup in this series. This observation is in concordance with a previously published report [22]. Preincisional wound infiltration with a local anesthetic seems to have provided some benefit in early postoperative pain reduction [23, 24].

Interestingly, in nearly all of these patients, the abdomen was f

Interestingly, in nearly all of these patients, the abdomen was found to be soft, nonrigid, and without obvious peritonitis or any palpable mass (seen only in 7 patients). Y-27632 ROCK Further, we observed that in our series, most of the patients had nonspecific laboratory findings/values, without any indication or reflection on the underlying pathology in these patients. Since both physical examination and initial laboratory investigations were nonspecific and did not relay the appropriate information on the severity of the underlying pathology to the clinicians, we argued that the onus of diagnosing intussusception was dependent on further radiological investigations. We found that CT scan was the diagnostic study of choice in majority of patients studied.

Most patients were found to have been investigated with more than one radiological investigation; however, the diagnosis was not established until the CT scan was completed. It may therefore be prudent to argue here that the CT scan is not only sensitive, but is also reliable in establishing the diagnosis early, and thus, in potential high-risk patients (females, young age, and significant excess weight loss), CT scan should take precedence over other investigations in diagnosing intussusception. As regards the treatment, it is clear that surgical intervention is warranted early. However, in deciding how to operate, there is room for discussion. Some authors have suggested that simple reduction without resection is safe, while others have opted to proceed with resection of the bowel to prevent reoccurrence.

Obviously, in cases that necessitate resection (bowel ischemia or necrosis), the latter is the treatment of choice. We found in our analysis that the majority of patients required small bowel resection and revision of the anastomosis. Those patients who were initially not treated with resection/revision subsequently developed recurrence and had to be operated again. Within our clinical experience, we found that the operative technique (open or laparoscopic), length of the limb, or the type of suture material/staplers made no difference in outcome. As long as the patients were treated with resection/revision, they did not develop recurrence. With regards how the revision is done, it is a matter of debate until more information becomes available. We treated our patients both laparoscopically and with open technique. However, because of the limited number of small patients and lack of statistical validation, these findings must be considered in light of clinical experience at this stage. 5. Conclusion The diagnosis of intussusception in adults is relatively rare; however, we are Brefeldin_A noticing an increase in the incidence of this complication in patients who have undergone gastric bypass surgery.

Third, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed soft thoracic di

Third, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed soft thoracic disc herniation. And finally discography confirmed painful disc before the surgical procedure. Patients with Paclitaxel calcified discs or hard disc herniations were not treated with this procedure. 2.2. Tools During the surgical procedure, a burr, a bone shaver, and the Holmium-YAG laser were used to undercut the facet and rib head for foraminotomy. Discectomy was achieved by using a grasper, radiofrequency, and the Holmium-YAG laser. The surgical procedures were performed with the assistance of an 8mm (outer diameter) Wolf endoscope (Richard Wolf Medical Instruments Corporation, Vernon Hills, IL, USA). 2.3. Surgical Technique The procedures were performed under local anesthesia with the patient in a prone position on a radiolucent table.

The target disc was identified under fluoroscopic guidance (Figure 1(a)), and the entry point between the rib head and the facet (on oblique view) was marked on the skin (Figure 1(b)). Discography was performed to confirm the target disc and to help identify the location of the herniation. The 18 G needle inserted to perform discography was parallel to the upper endplate of the lower vertebral body (Figure 2). The tip of the needle reached posterior disc margin (on the lateral view) and was situated between midline and medial pedicle line (on the AP view). The surgical region was anesthetized with a combination of 0.5% lidocaine and epinephrine. Figure 1 The target disc was identified under fluoroscopic guidance (a), and the entry point between the rib head and the facet was marked on the skin (b).

Figure 2 Discography was performed to confirm the target disc and to help identify the location of the herniation; the needle was parallel to the upper endplate of the lower vertebral body. After discography, a guiding wire was inserted through the needle, and a 10mm skin incision was subsequently made. The needle was removed, and a sequential dilator was then inserted over the wire towards the posterolateral margin of the facet (Figure 3(a)). Once the tip of the dilator reached the surface of the annulus, the guiding wire was removed and the dilator was further inserted into the target foramen. A working cannula was then guided to the extraforaminal region over the dilator (Figure 3(b)). At this juncture, the dilator was removed and the endoscope was placed to assist with visualization.

Figure 3 A sequential dilator was then inserted over the wire towards the posterolateral margin of the facet (a). A working cannula was Entinostat guided to the extraforaminal region over the dilator (b). To perform foraminotomy, we first titled the cannula to expose the foraminal epidural space. We then used an Ellman radiofrequency probe (Ellman International, New York, USA) and a shaver to expose the facet medially and rib head laterally (Figure 4).

This suggests that SEM 5 might regulate attenuation of LET 23 sig

This suggests that SEM 5 might regulate attenuation of LET 23 signalling through ubi quitination and subsequent endocytosis using two differ ent ubiquitin ligases, SLI 1 and CUL 4 DDB 1 CDT 2. Unfortunately, we have been as yet unable to directly assess LET 23 receptor localisation or endocyto sis selleck during vulva development, immunostaining experi ments are inconsistent and current let 23,gfp transgenics are not fully functional. Tests of these mod els will require better reagents to investigate regulation of the LET 23 receptor. Ubiquitination and regulation of Notch signalling Receptor mediated endocytosis is important to termi nate or attenuate signalling, not only for EGFR but also for other signalling pathways, e. g. Notch.

During vulva development, LIN 12 signalling is required for establishment of the secondary cell fate and for the production of the anchor cell, which pro duces LIN 3. Interestingly, SEL 10, an F box and a WD40 containing protein that belongs to the CDC4 CUL 1 family of ubiquitin ligase, has been shown to play an important role in attenuation of LIN 12 signalling. SEL 10 was also shown to physically interact with LIN 12, implying that it regulates signal ling via ubiquitination of LIN 12. Herein we have not investigated the relationship between the CUL 4 DDB 1 CDT 2 ubiquitin ligase complex and LIN 12 signal ling. We did not observe any defects in anchor cell development, a process dependent on LIN 12, however, it has been previously shown for SEL 10 that a sensitised background is required to reveal its activity as an attenuator of LIN 12 signalling.

Therefore, we may not have detected a potential role for CDT 2 in attenuation of LIN 12 signalling. There is also an intimate link between LIN 12 and LET 23 signalling during vulva development. Indeed, high level of LET 23 signalling triggers expression of LIN 12 ligands in the primary P6. p cell. This activates LIN 12 signalling in the flanking secondary cells and ensures down regulation of LET 23 signalling in P5. p and P7. p cells. It is not impossible that the depletion of CDT 2 or CUL 4 impairs LIN 12 signalling and thereby prevents appropriate down regulation of LET 23 signalling in secondary cells, which would cause persistent expres sion of egl 17,cfp in secondary cells. Localisation of CDT 2 The localisation of CDT 2 fused to GFP is predomi nantly nuclear in interphase and cytoplasmic during mitosis, which seems contrary with a function in endo cytosis.

However, we cannot exclude that a proportion of CDT 2,GFP Entinostat below our limit of detection is cytoplas mic during interphase. Interestingly, early studies showed that human CDT 2 can be detected in the cyto plasm, which would be consistent with a role in ubi quitination of cytoplasmic targets. Alternatively, the CUL 4 DDB 1 CDT 2 E3 ubiquitin ligase complex may be active in the cytoplasm only after nuclear breakdown.