A similar strategy was used recently to show that Nespas macro ncRNA in the Gnas cluster silences Nesp, but the impact of the ncRNA truncation on the other promoters in the cluster has not yet been reported [ 7••]. Genes showing ML imprinted expression may or may not be overlapped by the regulating macro ncRNA. However, all genes showing EXEL imprinted expression are not overlapped and lie further away

from the ncRNA, making them mTOR inhibitor a better model to understand long-range cis-silencing by ncRNAs. EXEL imprinted expression is restricted to certain cell types in extra-embryonic tissues, meaning studies of EXEL gene regulation can be compromised when using an intact organ like placenta that contains non-EXEL embryonic cell types as well as maternal endothelial and blood tissue. We have recently shown that visceral endoderm, an EXEL cell type, can be efficiently isolated from

visceral yolk sac providing a homogenous cell population to study EXEL gene regulation in vivo [ 11••]. This review examines recent findings that provide information on how imprinted macro ncRNAs may cause long-range cis-silencing of EXEL genes, focusing on silencing by Airn and Kcnq1ot1 in the Igf2r and Kcnq1 clusters ( Figure 1). The Kcnq1ot1 macro ncRNA is transcribed from the unmethylated paternal ICE located in intron 10 of Kcnq1 and silences four ML genes and six EXEL genes on the paternal

allele ( Figure 1a). Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays, it was recently reported that Kcnq1ot1 is 471 kb click here long in all examined tissues, and therefore overlaps all downstream genes, including EXEL genes [ 26]. However, this finding conflicts with previous reports using qPCR and RNase protection assays that mapped Kcnq1ot1 to be 91 kb or 121 kb [ 22 and 27]. In addition, our own RNA sequencing data and the distribution of reported ESTs are consistent with the earlier Idelalisib mw studies, mapping Kcnq1ot1 to be between 83 and 121 kb, meaning that it would only overlap Kcnq1 introns 10–11 ( Figure 1a) [ 28]. The Kcnq1ot1 RNA is reported to have different behaviour in embryonic versus extra-embryonic tissues. The Kcnq1ot1 RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) signal is larger in placenta than in embryo, correlating with the greater number of genes silenced in the placenta [ 22]. Kcnq1ot1 also shows a greater association with chromatin in placenta than embryo, implying an association between the ncRNA product and the chromosome in placenta [ 27]. In Trophoblast Stem (TS) cells, the precursor of EXEL cell types in the placenta, Kcnq1ot1 colocalises with a contracted chromosome compartment containing the entire Kcnq1 imprinted cluster and the repressive chromatin modifications H3K9me3, H2A119u1 and H3K27me3 [ 29••].

Furthermore, changes in sediment turnover, resulting from decreased or altered bioturbation activity, will affect microbial activity and, in turn, has the potential to affect major pathways of biogeochemical cycling ( Gilbertson et al., 2012). It is important to

consider changes in bioirrigation activity, as well as changes in behaviour that affect particle redistribution. The observed increases in ammonia and silicate concentrations cannot be attributed to increased bioirrigation activity, but buy GDC-0941 it is likely that observed changes in nutrient concentrations, albeit small, indicate the start of changes in microbial activity and composition, particularly in terms of the realised ratio of archaea to bacteria (Wyatt et al., 2010 and Gilbertson et al., 2012). Indeed, microbial nitrification rates

have been demonstrated to decrease under experimentally reduced pH conditions (Beman et al., 2010). In particular ammonia oxidation rates are strongly inversely correlated with pH and have been found to be reduced by up to 90% at pH 6.5 and completely inhibited at pH 6 (Huesemann et al., 2002 and Kitidis et al., 2011) in the water column, although rates of ammonia oxidation within the sediment profile are not necessarily affected (Kitidis et al., 2011, Laverock et al., unpub.). It should be noted, however, that not all changes in biogeochemical cycles are attributable to the direct effects of acidification on the microbial Vorinostat purchase community. In the case of silicate, for example, acidification of seawater may accelerate the chemical breakdown of diatom tests, leading to an increased rate of silicate release. The bioturbation activity of burrowing macrofauna has been previously shown to have a significant effect on sediment Protein tyrosine phosphatase silicate fluxes (Olsgard et al., 2008) through increased mixing across the sediment water interface. Within the context of acidification events associated with CO2 leakage from a subsea carbon storage site, even

short-term localised events have the potential to lead to secondary effects that have functional consequences at larger scales and over longer timescales. Here, we have shown that a functionally important bioturbator (Solan and Kennedy, 2002 and Wood et al., 2009) switches behaviour in response to acidification. Changes in species behaviour could also lead to shifts in the benthic community composition. Polychaetes, for example, have been shown to be less sensitive to seawater acidification (Widdicombe and Needham, 2007), and may become more competitive under hypercapnic conditions. It is also possible that species, such as A. filiformis, that exhibit emergent behaviour, may become more susceptible to predation or displacement, especially if an acidification event coincides with high current flow ( Loo et al., 1996 and Solan and Kennedy, 2002) or times of high predator abundance ( Pape-Lindstrom et al., 1997), affecting energy flow through the food web ( O’Connor et al., 1986 and Lawrence, 2010).

208, P < 0.001). A total of 72 taxa of zooplankton Ibrutinib (including 14 groups of planktonic larvae) were identified during the survey period (Table 3). Copepods represented the most diverse group with 35 species, accounting for 48.61% of the total

species richness. Planktonic larvae formed an important group, including mainly macruran, brachyuran and polychaete larvae, which represented more than 20% of all taxa. The richness of other groups was generally < 5 species (Table 3). For example, two species of cladocerans (Penilia avirostris and Pseudevadne tergestina) were observed. The species number varied among stations, with the maximum at S5 (55 species) and the minimum at S6 (24). There were ca 35 species at S1, S2, S3 and S4 during the sampling period. The abundance of zooplankton fluctuated irregularly, being low in the beginning and middle of the sampling period, and with two peaks on 14 and 23 May (Figure 3a). The temporal variation of cladoceran abundance determined the total zooplankton abundance (Figure 3b). Cladocerans constituted E7080 datasheet from 41% (28 April) to 90% (14 May) of the total zooplankton abundance, with an average

of 74%. Although copepods had the highest species diversity, their abundance was lower than those of cladocerans and planktonic larvae. The proportion of planktonic larvae generally decreased from the beginning to the end of the survey, whereas copepods increased (Figure 3b). The abundance of zooplankton varied among sampling stations, with the highest at S2 (3772.96 ± 2019.97 indiv. m− 3) and the lowest at S6 (854.83 ± 743.88 indiv. m− 3). There is a significant difference among S2, S5 and S6, the zooplankton abundance at S2 being higher than at S5 and S6 (F = 9.666, P < 0.01). Table 4 showed that the variation of cladoceran abundance was consistent with total abundance and was dominant at each sampling station. Pearson correlation analysis indicated that the total zooplankton abundance was positively correlated with temperature

(r = 0.399, P < 0.01), but was not correlated significantly with salinity or Chl a concentration in Dapeng Cove during the survey period. for The dominant species consisted mainly of Penilia avirostris, Acartia erythraea, Sagitta enflata, brachyuran larvae and macruran larvae. Pseudevadne tergestina, Oikopleura dioica, cirripedia larvae and fish eggs dominated sporadically during the survey. P. avirostris was the predominant species during the survey period and determined the variation of total zooplankton abundance. It occurred at each station with high abundance during each survey period ( Figure 4). The peak period of P. avirostris abundance was not consistent among stations. For example, on 1 June there were 7266 indiv. m− 3 at S2, but only 38 indiv. m− 3 at S6. The abundance of P. avirostris was significantly higher at S2 than at S5 and S6 (F = 11.897, P < 0.001). The abundance of A. erythraea was < 100 indiv. m− 3 before 17 May and then increased to about 300 indiv.

51, P < 0.001) (see Table 2). The effect size expressed in Cohen's d, calculated as the difference between the Tai Ji Quan and control groups’ observed means at week 14 scaled by the pooled standard deviation, was 1.92. Similarly, Tai Ji Quan participants exhibited significant pre-to-post-intervention Thiazovivin cell line improvements in the 50-ft speed walk (t = −8.20, P < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.53), Up& Go (t = −8.52, P < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.40), and ABC efficacy scores (t = 4.43, P < 0.001, Cohen's

d = 1.21). No within-group pre-to-posttest change on the three secondary measures was observed for the control group. There was a difference in the improvements from baseline between groups. Compared to those in the control group, Tai Ji Quan participants had significantly improved 50-ft speed walk (F1,44 = 6.13, P = 0.02), Timed Up&Go (F1,44 = 6.82, P = 0.01), and ABC scores (F1,44 = 16.65, P < 0.001) scores (see Table 2). Changes in the MMSE scores were significantly correlated with the 50-ft speed walk (r = −0.44, P < 0.05), Timed Up&Go (r = −0.47, P < 0.05), and ABC scores (r = 0.49, P < 0.05), indicating that improvement in global cognitive function among Tai Ji Quan participants Regorafenib mouse was associated with improved physical performance (i.e., faster times) and belief in their ability to avoid a loss

of balance during activities of daily living. The correlations between these relationships O-methylated flavonoid were not statistically significant for the control group (P = 0.26). After a 14-week intervention, the study showed that Tai Ji Quan participants improved significantly on the MMSE, a measure of global cognitive function. There were also concomitant improvements in physical performance measures of the 50-ft walk and Up&Go tests and a balance efficacy measure compared to those in the control group. In addition, as a pilot study the training protocol involving components of both physical and mental training was feasible in terms of implementation and was well tolerated, as evidenced by well-attended Tai Ji Quan sessions and excellent program compliance. The results from this study were in line with emerging research that shows physical activity,

such as aerobic exercise (Baker et al., 2010) or general physical effort, including walking (Larson et al., 2006, Lautenschlager et al., 2008 and Maki et al., 2012), is associated with preservation of cognitive function. The results also support the findings of previous studies that indicate that Tai Ji Quan training may impact cognitive function in older adults in addition to enhancing physical attributes (Cheng et al., 2013, Lam et al., 2012, Mortimer et al., 2012 and Taylor-Piliae et al., 2010). Specifically our finding of improvement in the global measure of MMSE is consistent with studies which have shown either short-term (Burgener et al., 2008) or dose–response (Chang et al., 2011) impact of Tai Ji Quan training on MMSE.

Trade wind effects on vegetation are well documented. For example, they generate distinct microclimates on leeward and adjacent winward sides Dasatinib mouse of mountains (Smith and Young, 1987), resulting in longitudinal rainshadow gradients along which the altitudinal limits of vegetation belts vary (e.g. Sklenář and Laegaard, 2003). Low precipitation levels combined with (1) the absence of water input provided by durable snowbeds and (2) well-documented water

stress due to reduction in soil depth and organic matter content at high elevation (Pérez, 1987b, Körner, 2003 and Anthelme et al., 2012) make tropical mountains more arid than their extratropical counterparts (Leuschner, 2000). This is illustrated by the occurrence of ‘alpine deserts’ on the leeward slopes of high isolated

mountains such as Mount Kilimanjaro in East Africa (Crawford, 2008), Mount Chimborazo in Ecuador (Sklenář and Laegaard, 2003), Cordillera de Merida in Venezuela (Monasterio, Selleckchem Afatinib 1979 and Pérez, 1987a), Mount Cameroon (Letouzey, 1985), volcano Maui in Hawaii (e.g. Pérez, 2003), or in large plateaux bordered to the East by high mountain ranges, such as the Bolivian altiplano (Herzog, 1923). The relative aridity observed in TAE is likely responsible for the common occurrence of (1) scleromorphic plant types such as giant cushions, giant rosettes, and microphyllous shrubs (Ramsay and Oxley, 1997 and Leuschner, 2000) and (2) natural and man-induced fire episodes which constitute severe constraints for plant development (Smith and Young, 1987 and Luteyn, 1999). Altitudinal variation is a powerful proxy of the main drivers of the spatiotemporal dynamics of alpine ecosystems (Körner, 2007 and Nagy and Grabherr, 2009). Because of a lower latitudinal position, TAE occur at a much higher altitude than other alpine ecosystems, especially close to the equator (Körner, 2003). Consequently, TAE are exposed to lower partial pressures of atmospheric gases than most extratropical alpine systems, among which low levels of atmospheric CO2 can have a substantial effect on plant growth and biomass (Körner, 2003 and Körner, 2007). For the

same reasons, ultraviolet (UV) radiations are much stronger in TAE (Körner, 2007) and represent a supplementary physical stress for plants (Caldwell and Robberecht, Dimethyl sulfoxide 1980). It is interesting to note that some subtropical, subarctic, and subantarctic isolated islands, as well as New Zealand, share several ecological features with TAE – including similar growth forms such as giant rosettes, giant cushions, and tussock grasses (Halloy and Mark, 1996, Leuschner, 1996, Mark et al., 2000, Bannister et al., 2005 and le Roux and McGeoch, 2010). As these regions do not share necessarily the specific TAE abiotic features of inverted rainfall gradients and high altitude, it seems that the reason for such similarity in vegetation may rely on the strong oceanic influence on the local climate which buffers seasonality (Leuschner, 1996).

, 2005). However, the combined venoms were more efficient to be recognized by serum with high neutralizing potency. We assumed that the complexity of the antigen used in the ELISA is not favorable for establishing a correlation between the antigenic reactivity and the neutralizing properties, probably due to the existence of a limited spectrum of neutralizing antibodies. Therefore, we evaluated simpler antigens, in the form of peptides, which could mimic epitopes including the neutralizing ones. The epitope-mapping Spot technique was used (Maria et al., 2005, Alvarenga et al., 2010b and Machado de Ávila et al., 2004), thereby allowing a systematic search for continuous epitopes. These regions,

besides being antigenic, may also correspond to neutralizing epitopes because they are related either to the catalytic site or to the mechanism of action of the toxins (Murakami Talazoparib nmr et al., 2005, Alvarenga et al., 2010a and Alvarenga et al., 2010b; Felicori et al., 2009; de Moura et al., 2011). Taking into consideration the recognition of the Osimertinib supplier three different dermonecrotic proteins by horse antivenoms with high neutralizing potency,

nine reactive peptides were selected (i.e., three from each protein). Some reactive peptide regions of LiD1 had been previously identified (Felicori et al., 2006 and Felicori et al., 2009), confirming the immunogenicity of some regions. However, for the first time such mapping was produced with toxins from three different Loxosceles species. Among the mapped antigenic

regions, an analysis of the recognition frequency by the different sera was done. When the serum was tested at low dilution, the recognition frequency of some epitopes was the same in sera with high or low neutralizing potency. When the serum dilution was increased, the low neutralizing potency sera were not able to recognize selleck chemicals llc the peptides, whereas the high neutralizing potency sera were able to recognize the peptides, suggesting that the test conditions may influence the discrimination between the different sera. Some sequences appeared to be best candidates for such differentiation (e.g., peptides 2 and 3). Peptide 3 (164DFSGPYLPSLPTLDA178) from SMase-D I was not recognized by any low neutralizing potency serum. This region has been reported to be a highly conserved region in SMase-D from L. laeta ( Murakami et al., 2005). Peptide 3 corresponds to a variable loop, which is five residues shorter than sequences from other species. As reported by de Giuseppe et al. (2011), this loop exposes the active site. Therefore, peptide 3 seems to be an important region for the identification of high neutralizing potency sera. Peptide 2 (22EFVNLGANSIETDVS36), which is present in SMase-D from L. intermedia and L. gaucho venoms, corresponds to a conserved region suggesting a structural and functional homology between the toxins.

The first of these involves innovative technology in marine pollution. Rapid and cost effective diagnostic tools are required to diagnose the health of the marine environment, and in recent years, we have seen considerable development in this area. There is an urgent and continuing need for the early detection of biotoxins and anthropogenic contaminants in the marine environment, so that prompt preventative

or remedial actions can be undertaken. Recent (and rapid) advances in a wide variety of techniques (including microarrays, gene probes, proteomics and metabolomics, flow cytometry, biosensors, molecular imprinting, remote sensing and telemetry) offer great promise in revolutionizing pollution detection Wnt inhibitor and measurement. Chemicals of emerging concern in the marine environment Selleckchem RG-7204 comprise an especially topical subject, which also received wide coverage during the conference. A vast range of chemicals, including perfluorinated compounds, polybrominated fire retardants and pharmaceutical and personal care products have been shown to be ubiquitous in the marine environment,

occurring world-wide from tropical oceans to Arctic and Antarctic waters. Importantly, recent scientific evidence has indicated that many of these compounds have endocrine disrupting activities to marine organisms. A thorough scientific evaluation of their toxicities and ecological risks in marine environments is therefore urgently needed, and we are very pleased to note that many papers were submitted in this area. Another important theme of the conference was hypoxia and eutrophication. Such events have resulted in major changes in marine ecosystems around the world, and considerable economic losses to fisheries and aquaculture

have occurred as a result. These are problems that will be exacerbated in the coming years due to global warming, and especially in developing countries where construction of waste treatment facilities Lumacaftor is still unlikely to catch up with increasing population demands. Alarmingly, the number of hypoxic dead zones has doubled every decade, and deltas of the Yangtse and Pearl Rivers, two of the three largest rivers and estuaries in China, were declared “dead zones” in a UNPD survey in 2006. In a break-through for this aspect of marine science, our MERIT group has revealed for the first time that hypoxia is an endocrine disruptor as well as a teratogen for fish, making hypoxia probably one of the most important environmental problems in our current era. The development of specific ecotoxicological techniques and various indicators of environmental health (including biomarkers) has become a mainstay of pollution monitoring in recent years. Without doubt, biological and ecological techniques confer considerable advantages in the assessment of pollutant effects on living organisms and ecosystems.

This study was funded by grants from Science for Life Laboratory Stockholm, by the ProNova VINN Excellence Centre for Protein Technology (VINNOVA, Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems), by grants from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation and the European Union 6th Framework P-Mark (Grant number LSHC-CT-2004-503011), Swedish Cancer Society, Bleomycin and Swedish Research Council Medicine (VR). “
“Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a metabolic disease characterized by derangements in glucose and lipid homeostasis in insulin-sensitive organs such as liver [1], adipose tissue [2] and skeletal muscle [3].

Skeletal muscle accounts for over 80% of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, and impairments in insulin action on non-oxidative glucose metabolism in this tissue are among the earliest metabolic defects in T2D [4]. Substantial evidence from proteomic and genomic studies suggests that metabolic defects exist in skeletal muscle from people with T2D versus normal glucose tolerance (NGT) [5], [6], [7], [8], [9] and [10]. A broad spectrum of cellular defects, including mitochondrial function, fatty acid metabolism and inflammation have HDAC inhibitors in clinical trials been observed in skeletal muscle

from T2D patients [11] and [12]. Due to the complexity of T2D, greater insight into mechanisms underlying the development of skeletal muscle insulin resistance is warranted, due to the important role of this tissue in the maintenance of whole body glucose, amino acid and lipid homeostasis [13], [14] and [15]. T2D and related metabolic diseases impart a coordinated, progressive dysfunction in skeletal muscle that is manifested through alterations in both local gene

transcription [16] and circulating metabolites and hormones [17] and [18]. Thus, the inter-individual variation, and the influence of external systemic factors such as hormones, cytokines and metabolites, which may influence the identification of inherent T2D-related differences, DNA ligase must be taken into consideration when performing a global profiling of proteins in skeletal muscle to detect T2D-specific signatures. Primary differentiated myotubes display many features of mature skeletal muscle [19]. Thus culturing satellite cells has become a useful research model to study molecular mechanisms underlying cellular and physiological processes such as cell growth, differentiation, apoptosis and the regulation of specific gene expression in skeletal muscle. In spite of the non-similarity to a whole mature muscle phenotype, differentiated human myotubes may also maintain the diabetic phenotype, as evidenced by impaired glucose metabolism and insulin action [7], [20] and [21]. Another advantage of primary differentiated myotube cultures is the higher protein extraction yield acquired from cells verses the amount typically obtained from small muscle biopsies.

, 2010). So, the productions of both diacetyl and acetoin by S. thermophilus, for which α-acetolactate synthase and decarboxylase activities are well documented ( Monnet & Corrieu, 2007), can be ascribed in the present work to lactose metabolization. On the other hand, it has been reported that, through citrate permease induction

by citrate, several LAB species are able to metabolize citrate (Mayo et al., 2010) producing 4-carbon compounds such as diacetyl and acetoin. In addition, L. rhamnosus was shown to co-metabolize citrate at low or intermediate levels only in the presence of a fermentable sugar such as lactose ( Jyoti, Suresh, & Venkatesh, 2003). Additional pyruvate is formed during citrate metabolism, so that most of it becomes available Depsipeptide concentration when required to oxidize the NADH released during selleckchem sugar fermentation ( Axelsson, 1998). Since citrate is present in significant amounts in milk of many animals, like cows and goats (1.5 g/L) ( Linzell, Mepham, & Peakert, 1976), the presence of the above flavoring compounds in our fermented products was supposed to be the likely result of citrate fermentation. The highest values of diacetyl (18.4 mg/L) and acetoin (0.8 mg/L) were obtained at the end of the St–Lr co-culture (Fig. 2), which suggests the occurrence of a

synergism between St and Lr, leading to great advantages in the manufacture of dairy products because of their characteristic flavors. According to Oliveira, Perego, Oliveira, and

Converti Etofibrate (2011), the increased presence of these flavoring end-products in co-cultures could be ascribed to substantial metabolic changes. These results taken together demonstrate that L. rhamnosus could be a possible candidate to industrially synthesize diacetyl and acetoin. Another synergistic effect is evidenced in Fig. 2 by the higher increase in biomass concentration in the co-culture compared with pure cultures. St and Lr did in fact exhibit maximum final cell concentrations 15.5 and 44% lower than in St–Lr, respectively. One hypothesis to explain such an effect is that S. thermophilus produces small amounts of formic acid and CO2 ( Mayo et al., 2010) that can stimulate the growth of other LABs, while L. rhamnosus is able to release peptides by a serine protease of the subtilisin family (known as PrtR) that stimulate the growth of S. thermophilus ( Siezen, 1999). As shown in Fig. 3, the presence of inulin enhanced, in general, the levels of all main metabolic end-products. In particular, at the end of fermentation, the concentration of lactic acid in the St pure culture, Lr pure culture and St–Lr co-culture was 1.2, 10.9 and 26.1% higher than without inulin (Fig. 2). By the same reasoning, the acetic acid concentration increased by 21.5% in the Lr pure culture and 33.5% in the St–Lr co-culture, and that of ethanol by no less than 300% in the Lr pure culture and 241% in the St–Lr co-culture.

Genome-wide association studies test for associations between each of hundreds of thousands of SNPs across the genome and one or more traits. Very large sample sizes are required to detect the small effect sizes that appear to be the norm for complex traits. An allele frequency bin includes only alleles within a fixed-size range of frequencies. The minor allele at a given locus is the allele that is less common in the population, and for SNPs, there

are usually two alleles. The minor allele frequency is the frequency of the less common find more allele at a locus. A causal variant (CV) is an allele that influences a trait. CVs are tagged by measured SNPs to the extent that they are in linkage disequilibrium, and therefore statistically correlated, with them. Whole-genome sequencing provides data for the complete sequence of DNA for an individual, including all frequency classes of alleles (including unique alleles). Good genes’ models of sexual selection also predict that traits that serve as good genes indicators will tend to be positively genetically intercorrelated because each trait is an imperfect index of the same underlying ‘mutation load’ [10•]. In other words, for traits to be accurate indicators of mutational loads, many genes must influence them, which causes overlaps in their genes (pleiotropic genes) and hence genetic correlations between them. However, genetic correlations between sexually selected traits can also arise via linkage disequilibrium due to cross-trait

assortative mating (mates choosing simultaneously on a number of indicators, as described in previous section, above). The relative importance of these alternative explanations for genetic correlations 3-Methyladenine order can be quantified using extended twin-family designs 11, 12 and 13], which have indicated that both pleiotropy

and cross-trait assortative mating are roughly equally important in causing the genetic correlation between height and intelligence [14•], two traits that are potential good genes indicators. Additional traits need to be tested in a similar way to understand the generality of this conclusion. Evolutionary hypotheses about the origin of sexual dimorphism often make predictions about cross-sex genetic correlations — that is, the extent to which the same or different genes influence a trait in males and females. An example pertains to the evolutionary basis of facial Protein tyrosine phosphatase sexual dimorphism. The predominant hypothesis in evolutionary psychology is that male facial masculinity is a good genes indicator such that women can increase the quality of their offspring by choosing a facially masculine mate 15 and 16]. However, genetic analyses suggest that the genes that make male faces masculine do not improve male attractiveness but do make female relatives’ faces more masculine and less attractive, casting doubt on the good genes theory of male facial masculinity 4• and 17]. New methods allow testing genetic correlations using genotypes from samples of unrelated people [18].