The authors thank Department of Clinical PD98059 in vivo Biochemistry, Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre (Copenhagen, Denmark) for quantifying IgG. The authors thank Anne-Louise Sørensen, Lotte Mikkelsen, and Lubna Ghanem (Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre) for their general laboratory support as well as assistance locating samples and reagents, Jens Ole Nielsen and Ove Andersen (Copenhagen University Hospital, Hvidovre) for their support of the project, and Charles Rice (Rockerfeller University, New York, NY) and Takaji Wakita (National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan) for providing

reagents. Additional Supporting Information may be found in the online version of this article. “
“The traditional Chinese herbal medicine Sho-saiko-to is a mixture of seven herbal preparations that has long been used in the treatment of chronic liver disease. Various clinical trials

have shown that Sho-saiko-to protects against the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhotic patients. However, the mechanism by which Sho-saiko-to protects hepatocytes against hepatic fibrosis and carcinoma is not yet known. Basic science studies have demonstrated that Sho-saiko-to reduces hepatocyte necrosis and enhances liver function. Sho-saiko-to significantly inhibits hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting the activation of stellate cells, the major producers of collagen in the liver, as well as by inhibiting hepatic lipid peroxidation, promoting matrix degradation, and suppressing extracellular matrix STI571 (ECM) accumulation. Furthermore, clinical trials have shown that

Sho-saiko-to lowers the rate of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development in patients with cirrhosis and increases the survival of patients with HCC. Unfortunately, some case reports have shown the side Protein tyrosine phosphatase effects of Sho-saiko-to. Most of the side effects were interstitial pneumonia and acute respiratory failure induced by Sho-saiko-to in Japan. As a result of analyzing these case reports, the incidence and risk are increased by co-administration of interferon, duration of medication, and, high in an elderly population. This review discusses the properties of Sho-saiko-to with regards to the treatment of chronic liver diseases and suggests the side effects of Sho-saiko-to “
“The use of biological agents in inflammatory bowel diseases across the Asia-Pacific region is increasing. As new molecules and targets are identified, knowledge regarding the indications, utility, optimization and adverse effects of biological agents grows. Careful patient selection, attention to communication and patient education will maximize the benefit of these drugs. Tertiary referral centers with specific interest in inflammatory bowel diseases and experience play an important role in their use.

flavus, A. tamarii and the unnamed taxon SBG) were observed with the frequency of toxigenic strains remaining below 50% in maize from the SG zone compared with 51% of isolates from samples collected in Sedhiou district in SS zone. The proportion of toxigenic strains isolated from sesame was variable. For both crops, L-strains were the most prevalent in the two agro-ecological zones. Some of the atoxigenic strains collected could be valuable

microbial resources for the biological control of aflatoxin in Senegal. “
“Avocado sunblotch viroid (ASBVd) causes an important disease of avocado, Persea americana. Symptoms of avocado sunblotch were first observed in the avocado germplasm collection at the National Germplasm Repository in Miami in the early 1980s; however, the extent of infection was unknown. An ASBVd-specific reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) protocol was developed in 1996 and used to screen every tree in DAPT concentration the collection. Surveys in 1996 and 2000 found that although 23 newly infected trees were detected, the proportion of ASBVd-positive accessions remained unchanged at 19%. However, in a 2009 survey, learn more 50 newly infected trees were detected for an overall infection rate of 21%. Results of spatial analyses indicate that for the older plantings, the effective range of spread increased more than threefold

during the 13 year span, while in the newer plantings, the pattern of infection indicates a reintroduction of the viroid rather than natural spread. Despite Rucaparib cell line strict sanitization procedures in field and greenhouse operations, ASBVd infections have increased in the USDA collection. Although genetic diversity in the collection would be reduced, eliminating all ASBVd-positive plants may be necessary to ensure that other accessions in the collection do not become infected. “
“Blackberry anthracnose,

caused by Colletotrichum spp., is an important disease of cultivated blackberry in the world. In Colombia, it is the number one limiting factor for commercial production. This study was conducted to determine the species of Colletotrichum infecting blackberry plants as well as the organ distribution, pathogenicity and response to benomyl of the isolated strains. Sixty isolates from stems (n = 20), thorns (n = 20) and inflorescences (n = 20) were identified as Colletotrichum acutatum and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides by a species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Both Colletotrichum species were found in the same plant but on different organs. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides species predominated in thorn lesions (n = 16) and C. acutatum in stems (n = 15) and inflorescence (n = 15). Pathogenicity assays on detached blackberry organs demonstrated differences between the two species with an average period of lesion development of 8.7 days for C. gloeosporioides and 10.3 days for C. acutatum. Wound inoculated organs had 90% disease development compared to 17.5% in non-wounded. All C.

Following maturation and toxicology studies we aim for a Phase 1 clinical trial. Key Word(s): 1. Antibody ; 2. Immunotoxin; 3. Antibody derivatives; 4. Humanization; Presenting Author: GUIZHEN XIAO Additional Authors: YALI ZHANG Corresponding Author: FK506 manufacturer YALI ZHANG Affiliations: Department of Gastroenterology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University; Department of Gastroenterology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University Objective: Dysfunction of the intestinal epithelial tight junction (TJ) barrier is known to have an important

etiologic role in the pathophysiology of heat stroke. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), play a role in maintaining and protecting the TJ structure and function. This study is aimed at investigating whether n-3 PUFAs could alleviate heat stress-induced dysfunction of intestinal tight junction. Methods: Human

Ivacaftor intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells were pre-incubated with EPA, DHA or arachidonic acid (AA, n-6 PUFA) and then exposed to heat stress. Transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP) permeability were measured to analyze barrier integrity. Levels of TJ proteins, occludin and ZO-1, were analyzed by Western blot and localized by immunofluorescence microscopy. Messenger RNA levels were determined by quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR). TJ morphology was observed by transmission electron microscopy. Results: EPA effectively attenuated the decrease in TEER and impairment of intestinal permeability in HRP flux induced by heat exposure. The amount of occludin and ZO-1

significantly decreased at 43°C, although occludin increased at 41°C. The expression of occludin and ZO-1 was significantly elevated by EPA, while DHA was less effective and AA was no effective. The distortion and redistribution of TJ proteins, and disruption of morphology were also effectively prevented by pretreatment with EPA. Conclusion: This study indicates for the first time that EPA is more potent than DHA in protecting against heat-induced permeability dysfunction and epithelial barrier damage of tight junction. Key Word(s): Buspirone HCl 1. EPA; 2. DHA; 3. Epithelial Barrier; Presenting Author: GABRIEL GRAU Additional Authors: ALEXIA TORRES, PEDRO ASO, ELENA MYLONÁS, GLADINEX PERÉZ, FABIOLA FABIANO Corresponding Author: GABRIEL GRAU Affiliations: IDID; USB; Professor Objective: In many regions the leguminous represent the only source of protein in the diet, this together with the growing interest in obtaining novel sources of proteins, the determination of its allergenic potential have become a need. Allergic reactions to some leguminous proteins are well known and are associated with globulins 7 and 11 Svedberg (S). In Venezuela the use of leguminous flours as pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), have been increased.

(Method) Long-cultured HCV-2b/JFH1 chimeric virus (C3) was cultured with or without interferon-α for 8 weeks and

compared virus kinetics between the two groups, and tried to extract IFN resistant clone from C3 cultured with interferon-α. (Result) Supernatant HCV titer of C3 decreased immediately after addition of interferon and reached the lower limit of measurement sensitivity after 2 weeks. However, 6 weeks after interferon treatment, replication of one C3 clone increased in the presence of interferon-a. Next we inoculated this supernatant onto naīve Huh7.5.1 cells and ensured that the virus was replication competent. Next we compared interferon sensitivity AZD2014 between HCV from long-cultured C3 with interferon-α and C3 that was newly transfected into naīve Huh 7.5.1 cells (1st-C3).1st-C3 showed higher responses to interferon than long cultured C3 with interferon-a. Comparison of amino acid sequences between virus before interferon treatment and that after 6-week interferon treatment revealed two sequence differences in structure region (envelope1 and 2 respectively). Next we constructed these two sequence differences substituted C3 clone (IFNrC3) and compared interferon sensitivity between IFNrC3 and C3 by transfection into Huh7.5.1 cells and subsequently interferon

treatment. The newly constructed IFNrC3 showed resistance to interferon compare with C3. (Conclusion) We succeeded to establish interferon-resistant HCV cell culture system from long cultured C3 chimeric virus. Analysis of this Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor virus may be useful to understand the mechanism of interferon resistance. Disclosures: The following people have nothing to disclose: Goki Suda, Yoko Tsukuda, Mitsuteru Natsuizaka, Makoto Chuma, Naoya Sakamoto 1Royal Prince Alfred

Hospital, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; 2Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany; 3Department of Internal Medicine, First Medical Faculty, Charles University, and Central Metalloexopeptidase Military Hospital Prague, Prague, Czech Republic; 4Outpatient Clinic to HIV and Viral Hepatitis Division of Infectious Disease, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; 5Liver Unit, Department of Gastroenterology Hepatopancreatology and Digestive Oncology, Erosme University Hospital, Université Libre de Bruxellesand Viral Hepatitis Division of Infectious Disease, Federal University of So Paulo, Brussels’ Belgium; 6HospiaI Universitario 12 de Octubre’ Sección de Aparato Digestivo, Madrid, Spain; 7I. M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, E. M. Tareev Clinic for Nephrology, Intern nal and Occupational Medicine, Moscow, Russian Federation; 8Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Prof. Dr.

Physical maturity was reached at between 14 and 17 yr of age, apparently a few years after attainment of sexual maturity. Maximum lengths and weights of about 268 cm and see more 240 kg were attained. Females appear to lose all their spots by 30 yr, although males may retain some spotting throughout life. Calving occurred throughout the year, with a broad peak from March to June. Of 60 females monitored at sea for >14 yr of the study, none were documented to have more than three calves, suggestive of low reproductive output or low calf survival. “
“The gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) is a coastal species whose nearshore summer foraging grounds off the coast of British Columbia

offer an opportunity to study the fine

scale foraging response of baleen whales. We explore the relationship between prey density and gray whale foraging starting with regional scale (10 km) assessments of whale density (per square kilometer) and foraging effort as a response to regional mysid density (per cubic meter), between 2006 and 2007. In addition we measure prey density at a local scale (100 m), while following foraging whales during focal surveys. We found regional mysid density had a significant positive relationship with both gray whale density and foraging effort. We identify a threshold response to regional mysid density for both whale density and foraging effort. In 2008 the lowest average local prey density measured beside a foraging whale was 2,300 mysids/m3. This level was maintained even when regional prey Rucaparib concentration density was found to be substantially lower. Similar to other baleen whales, the foraging behavior of gray whales suggests a threshold response to prey density and a complex appreciation of prey availability across fine scales. “
“The conditioning of dolphins to human-interaction behaviors has been documented in several areas worldwide. However, the metrics used to report human-interaction behaviors vary among studies, making comparison across study areas difficult. The purpose of this study was to develop standard metrics for reporting human-interaction Carbohydrate behaviors and utilize these metrics

to quantify the prevalence of human-interaction behaviors by common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) near Savannah, Georgia. The four metrics used were percentage of days with human-interaction behaviors, percentage of sightings with human-interaction behaviors, percentage of the catalog that interacted with humans, and spatial extent of human-interaction behaviors. Human-interaction behaviors were observed on 69.6% of days and 23.5% of sightings near Savannah. In addition, 20.1% of the animals in the catalog were observed interacting with humans. These rates are much higher than those found in other areas with known issues with human-interaction behaviors. These behaviors were observed across an area of 272.6 km2, which is larger than other reported areas.

In this paper, I review the existing literature on vocal correlates of emotions in mammals. Non-human mammals could serve as ideal models to study vocal expression of emotions, because, contrary to human speech, animal vocalizations are assumed to be largely free of control and therefore direct expressions of underlying emotions. Furthermore, a comparative approach between humans and other animals would give us

a better understanding of how emotion expression evolved. Additionally, these non-invasive indicators could serve various disciplines that require animal emotions to be clearly check details identified, including psychopharmacology and animal welfare science. The existence of emotions in animals had already been suggested by Darwin in his book ‘The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals’ (Darwin, 1872). An emotion is not a high-level cognitive process, as click here evidence suggests that emotional states

are in fact generated by lower (medial and caudal subcortical structures) rather than higher brain regions (neocortical structures; Panksepp, 2005). Emotions have a crucial function for an animal’s life as they facilitate responses to external or internal events of significance for the organism; positive emotions elicit approach behaviour towards stimuli that enhance fitness (‘rewards’), whereas negative emotions trigger avoidance behaviour when encountering stimuli that threaten fitness (‘punishers’; Mendl, Burman & Paul, 2010). In scientific terms, an emotion is an intense but short-living affective reaction to a specific event or stimulus.

However, for most people, ‘emotion’ is a synonym of ‘feeling’ (i.e. our conscious/subjective Amobarbital experience of emotions). For example, if we happen to encounter a dangerous animal in the wild, our heart rate will increase and we will begin to sweat. Our subjective feeling of these physiological changes is what we call ‘fear’ (Davidson, Scherer & Goldsmith, 2003). This is probably why I often hear people asking ‘do animals really have emotions?’ or ‘is it not being anthropomorphic to infer that animals have emotions?’ Yes, non-human animals have emotions (at least ‘basic emotional systems’: seeking, rage, fear, lust, care, panic and play; Panksepp, 2011), even if subjective emotional experiences are not yet possible to prove in animals (de Waal, 2011). In other words, animals express signs of emotions, but their ability to feel these emotions is still highly controversial (Panksepp, 2005). Studying animal emotions can reveal the nature of basic human emotions (Panksepp, 2011). It can help us to understand how emotions evolved and developed, in order to acquire a full understanding of their nature (Adolphs, 2010).

Ibuprofen (600 μg, Sigma) was given intraperitoneally from 2 days before LPS challenge until the end of the experiment 5 days after challenge. In all experiments, control mice received an equal volume of PBS. To test the role of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in inducing hepatomegaly, Aoah−/− mice were provided L-NAME or D-NAME (Sigma) in their drinking water (1,000 mg/L) from 7 days before LPS or PBS administration to the end of the experiment on day 7. One day after intravenous LPS injection, blood was obtained from the tail vein and anticoagulated with EDTA to

measure nitrate/nitrite IAP inhibitor concentration by colorimetric assay (Cayman Chemical, Ann Arbor, MI). In other experiments, sodium nitrite (Sigma, 500 mg/L) was added to the drinking water of Aoah−/− mice from 7 days before to 7 days after intravenous LPS administration.

To confirm that the hepatic enlargement Y-27632 mw observed in Aoah+/+ and Aoah−/− mice requires exposure to LPS, we challenged the mice with an agonistic monoclonal antibody to MD-2/TLR4, the LPS receptor complex. This antibody, UT-12,19 elicited equivalent dose-related increases in liver size in both mouse genotypes (Supporting Fig. S1A), and liver weight had returned to normal in both Aoah−/− and Aoah+/+ mice by day 21 after injection (Supporting Fig. S1B). Activation of MD-2/TLR4 in Aoah−/− mice using a non-LPS agonist thus does not produce the persistent hepatomegaly observed following LPS exposure (Supporting Fig. S1C,D), confirming that the prolonged hepatomegaly response is LPS-dependent. We have previously shown that ≈80% of an intravenous dose of LPS is taken up by the liver, where

it remains at least 2 weeks.6 To track the cellular localization of injected FITC-LPS within the liver we used confocal microscopy to detect its association with Lumacaftor KCs (F4/80+), sinusoidal endothelial cells (VE-cadherin [CD144]+),22 and hepatocytes. One day after intravenous injection the FITC-LPS was largely found within, or attached to, KCs (Fig. 1A), although some of the FITC was also “free” within sinusoids (Fig. 1A,B, arrows). Even 7 days after injection, almost all of the detectable FITC-LPS was within sinusoids; most of it was again associated with KCs and very little colocalized with hepatocytes (Fig. 1C-F). The cellular localization of FITC-LPS was qualitatively similar in Aoah+/+ and Aoah−/− mice 7 days after FITC-LPS injection (Fig. 1C-F), suggesting that deacylation does not substantially influence the retention of LPS by KCs. Because liver sections stained with hematoxylin-eosin revealed prominent, blood-filled sinusoids in LPS-primed Aoah−/− mice,6 we defined these changes further using TEM and SEM on sections of perfused livers obtained 7 days after intravenous LPS injection. Both TEM and SEM revealed evidence of cell thickening (Fig. 2A,B), KC activation (prominent cytoplasmic extensions and adhesion and/or phagocytosis of erythrocytes and leukocytes) (Fig.

Early identification of CD and correction may improve the outcome of patients with early SAP and hypotension. Key Word(s): 1. Acute pancreatitis; 2. Cardiac dysfunction; 3. Hypotension; Presenting Author: RAGESHBABU THANDASSERY Additional Authors: SREEKANTH APPASANI, USHA DUTTA, SAROJKANT SINHA, KARTAR Torin 1 molecular weight SINGH,

RAKESH KOCHHAR Corresponding Author: RAGESHBABU THANDASSERY Affiliations: Department of Gastroenterology, PGIMER Objective: The role of obesity and APACHE O score in predicting adverse outcome in acute pancreatitis (AP) has been variably described. The outcome could be influenced by the other co-existing metabolic derangements over and above obesity. Aims Study the role of metabolic syndrome (MS) and APACHE metabolic syndrome score (APACHE M) in predicting the outcome in patients with AP. Materials and methods: Methods: 141 patients of AP admitted between July 2010 and December 2011 were observed for the course in hospital and outcome. APACHE M score was calculated by adding APACHE II score (48 hours) and metabolic syndrome Ganetespib cost score. [MS constituted

by hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, hyperglycemia, low HDL level and increased abdominal skin fold thickness] Results: Of 141 patients, mean age 40.1 ±12.6, 56.7% patients were normal weight, 24.8% overweight and 18.4% obese. 9 (6.3%) patients underwent surgery and 25 (17.7%) patients died. The occurrence of infected necrosis (p<0.001), requirement for percutaneous drain insertion (p=0.04), surgery (p=0.008) and mortality (p<0.001) were significantly higher in group with MS. The area under the curve (AUC) for predicting mortality was 0.892 for APACHE II (95% confidence interval (CI)=0.824-0.957), 0.897 for

APACHE O (CI=0.830-0.963) and 0.937 for APACHE M (CI=0.891-0.983). At a cut off of 8.5, APACHE II score had sensitivity of 92% and specificity of 67.2% Histamine H2 receptor and APACHE O, 92% and 64.7% and APACHE M 96% and 63.8%respectively. Conclusion: Metabolic derangements are important predictors of outcome. Predictive accuracy for mortality of APACHE M is higher than APACHE II and APACHE O. Key Word(s): 1. Acute pancreatitis.; 2. Obesity ; 3. Metabolic Syndrome; Presenting Author: RUPJYOTI TALUKDAR Additional Authors: SASIKALA MITNALA, P PAVAN KUMAR, A MAHESHWARI, GV RAO, R PRADEEP, DNAGESHWAR REDDY Corresponding Author: RUPJYOTI TALUKDAR Affiliations: [email protected]; Asian Healthcare Foundation Objective: Pancreatic stellate cell (PSCs) activation leading to fibrosis, increased pancreatic IFN-ã causing early â-cell dysfunction and â-cell apoptosis manifesting into clinical diabetes in chronic pancreatitis (CP) are reported earlier. It was demonstrated that early â-cell dysfunction in CP can result from increase in IFN-ã secreting T-helper (Th) cell mediated inflammation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the association of PSCs, T-helper cells and â-cell dysfunction.

10, 11 Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, and their survival is linked to their ability to subvert cellular antiviral defenses and to regulate cellular processes necessary for their own replication. We have shown that HCV genotype 1a or genotype 2a infection induces autophagy in immortalized human hepatocytes (IHHs).12 learn more Autophagy induction was subsequently reported with an HCV genotype 1b or 2a subgenomic replicon or infection with HCV genotype 2a (clone JFH1) in Huh7.5 cells.13-16 Although HCV-induced autophagy is established, whether autophagy helps in host cell survival or is

beneficial for HCV multiplication remains unknown. Some viruses, such as cytomegalovirus, Kaposi’s sarcoma–associated herpes virus, and human herpes simplex virus 1, have evolved strategies to suppress autophagy for their own survival.17 In herpes simplex virus

infection, infected cell protein 34.5 suppresses autophagy by binding to beclin 1 (BCN1) and blocks the initiation of autophagy.18 Certain viruses, such as mouse hepatitis virus, poliovirus, coxsackievirus, and dengue virus, exploit the elements of the autophagy system for their own replication.19 In mammalian systems, BCN1 recruits other autophagy BI 6727 supplier proteins to initiate the formation of the pre-autophagosomal membrane. Autophagy-related protein 7 (ATG7) is required in conjunction with ATG12 and ATG5 to form autophagosomes. We have reported previously that HCV infection induces BCN1 expression.12 In this study, we have demonstrated that HCV infection in autophagy-knockdown cells activates the interferon (IFN) signaling pathway

and apoptosis. ATG, autophagy-related protein; BCN1, beclin 1; DAPI, 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Progesterone dehydrogenase; GFP, green fluorescent protein; HCV, hepatitis C virus; IFI27, interferon-α–inducible protein 27; IFN, interferon; IHH, immortalized human hepatocyte; LC3, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; mRNA, messenger RNA; NS, nonstructural protein; OAS1, 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase 1; PARP, poly(adenosine diphosphate ribose) polymerase; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; siRNA, small interfering RNA; STAT, signal transducer and activator of transcription. IHHs and human hepatoma (Huh7.5) cells were maintained in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium containing 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U/mL penicillin G, and 100 μg/mL streptomycin at 37°C in a 5% carbon dioxide atmosphere. We grew HCV genotypes 1a (clone H77) and 2a (clone JFH1) in IHHs as previously described.20 HCV genotype 2a was initially grown in Huh7.5 cells in this study. For infection, IHHs (3 × 105 cells) were incubated with HCV genotype 1a (clone H77, 5.3 × 104 IU) and HCV genotype 2a (clone JFH1, 1.2 × 105 IU) in a minimum volume of the medium. After 8 hours of virus adsorption on hepatocytes, Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium, supplemented with 5% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum, was added.

Even when predation does occur, pseudothumbs may not be effective against predators because they face inward and the projected spines can only attack something within their arms. Also, most of the Otton frogs did not aggressively attack humans with their pseudothumbs when captured; aggression occurred only when their chest was irritated, which can be considered a reflex related to male–male combat or amplexus. Thus, the possibility of pseudothumb use for obtaining food or protection is slight. The pseudothumbs of the male Otton frogs were sometimes wounded. This seemed to be because the spine pierced its sheath during use. Otton frogs jab their pseudothumbs into

their opponents so strongly that the spines emerge by cutting through the sheath. When the author pulled down PF-02341066 cost Selleck RAD001 the sheath, the spine emerged and became visible in more than half of the male Otton frogs. Presumably, those with a visible spine might have used them recently in combat, whereas those that were not visible had not been used recently (at least for more than the period during which the wound healed). Piercing of the skin while using spines or claws has been observed in other frog species (Blackburn, Hanken & Jenkins, 2008) and in salamanders (Brodie,

Nussbaum & DiGiovanni, 1984). Blackburn et al. (2008) showed that the claws of Astylosternus and Trichobatrachus pierce their way to functionality, and Brodie et al. (1984) showed that Echinotriton andersoni has sharp ribs that protrude through the body wall against predators. Blackburn et al. (2008, p. 356) stated Amobarbital that the bony ribs of E. andersoni are the only comparative structures to the claws of Astylosternus and Trichobatrachus, and that the claws were not analogous to the prepollical spines of five-fingered frog species as ‘the spines … appear to grow through the skin rather than traumatically pierce it’. However, the spines of Otton frogs do not grow through the skin, but rather pierce the sheath traumatically. Thus, the claws of Astylosternus and Trichobatrachus, the ribs of E. andersoni and the prepollical spines of Otton frogs might have some common developmental features. Although amphibians are known

to have remarkable regenerative capacity (Brockes & Kumar, 2005), a structure that damages the animal itself in its use does not seem adaptive. This topic needs to be examined further and will be an interesting case study for the development of self-damaging structures. Although females do not appear to use their pseudothumbs and spines, they are still present, and a few individuals had spines that projected slightly from the sheath or showed a weak jabbing response. This could be because formation of the pseudothumb is linked developmentally with other important traits. The fact that the development of pseudothumbs in Otton frogs occurs at a fairly early stage, even in larvae (Tokita & Iwai, 2010), supports this idea. Corresponding formation of spines in females was also observed in some adult females of H.