1 Product concentration: In general, the higher percentage of AI, the greater the protection time will be, although this

tends to plateau at 50% w/v in the case of deet.63 The strongest level of evidence exists for the use of insecticide-treated mosquito nets, and these are to be advised for all travelers visiting disease endemic areas at risk from biting arthropods on retiring. Insecticide-treated clothing and other fabrics would also be a useful adjunct to dermal applied repellents. Electric insecticide vaporizers, essential oil candle, and coils to burn do reduce bites from arthropods, but there is little evidence on the efficacy of knockdown insecticide sprays. There is some concern

JAK inhibitor regarding the potential adverse effects of burning coils. There is less evidence that these technologies reduce the incidence of malaria. There is only weak evidence regarding the efficacy of oils used on the skin. See Table 2 for a summary of the findings. The use of fabric impregnated with insecticides, particularly insecticide-treated bed nets, has become an important tool or method of personal protection Antiinfection Compound Library in vitro against arthropod bites and disease-transmitting vectors. Some of the insecticides that are recommended and used for treatment of fabrics are permethrin, deltamethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, alpha-cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, and etofenprox.66 However, the insecticide most commonly used

for fabric impregnation is permethrin [3-(phenoxyphenyl) methyl (±)-cis, trans-3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-dimethyl-cyclopropanecarboxy late]. Permethrin is a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide derived from crushed dried flowers of the plant Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium. Although permethrin’s Lck primary mode of action is contact toxicity against a wide variety of biting arthropods, it is also unique in that it serves both as a contact insecticide and as an insect repellent. Permethrin-impregnated clothing provides good protection against mosquitoes,67–77 ticks,78–84 chigger mites,85,86 fleas,87 lice,88,89 sand flies,90,91 kissing bugs,92,93 and tsetse flies.94 Thus, the use of permethrin-treated clothing will decrease the biting frequency and transmission of arthropod-borne diseases among civilian travelers and deployed military personnel. Today, military personnel from many countries use permethrin to repel and kill arthropods that land on many kinds of treated surfaces, including field uniforms, tents, bed nets, and helmet covers.95 Impregnated-treated fabrics such as bed nets, curtains, chaddars (veils or wraps worn by Muslim women), top sheets, and blankets have also been found to be effective in reducing the burden of malaria and other vector-borne diseases96–100 and have been used in the Roll Back Malaria Program by the World Health Organization for tropical countries.

The nominal magnifications were in the range 6000–18 000 selleckchem and 4–6 μm underfocus values. Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus attack-phase cells were negatively stained using 0.5% uranyl acetate (URA) (Sigma), pH 4.0, for 30–45 s using the methods

described elsewhere (Evans et al., 2007). Cells were observed at 100 kV using a JEOL JEM 1010 TEM. C-terminal tagging of B. bacteriovorus proteins with a bright monomeric fluorescent protein mTFP was carried out as described previously in Fenton et al. 2010. In brief, C-terminal tagging of B. bacteriovorus Ccrp protein with mTFP was achieved by the amplification of a 927-bp fragment of the ccrp ORF from the HD100 genome, representing 76% of the entire ORF. Primer designs removed the stop codon of ccrp and introduced both EcoRI site and KpnI sites used to ligate the fragment in frame with mtfp; this construct was transferred into the mobilizable pK18mobsacB vector (Schafer et al., 1994), forming pAKF42a, and conjugated

into B. bacteriovorus HD100 using the methods described previously (Evans et al., 2007). Single genome Olaparib cell line integration of pAKF42a into the HD100 genome, producing a fluorescent, in-frame fusion, was confirmed by Southern blotting and by direct sequencing of DNA from the genomes of the resultant fluorescent strains. When translated, the Ccrp–mTFP fusion protein has five linker amino acids bridging the two proteins with the sequence VPRSS. Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus attack-phase cells were stained with the FM4-64 membrane stain (Invitrogen) at a final concentration of 10 μg mL−1 and incubated in the dark for 5 min before detection. FM4-64 stains the membranes of B. bacteriovorus, including the membranous flagellar sheath 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (Ai, 2006). Fluorescence and bright-field images were visualized on a Nikon Eclipse E600 epifluorescence microscope using a × 100 lens (NA: 1.25), with either CFP (excitation, 420–454 nm; emission, 458–500 nm) or hcRed (excitation, 550–600 nm; emission, 610–665 nm) filter blocks for the detection of mTFP

and FM4-64 fluorescence, respectively. Images were acquired using a Hamamatsu Orca ER camera and analysed using iplab software, version 3.64. mTFP fluorescence images were background corrected using the 3D filter tool and normalized within the iplab software; FM4-64 images are displayed raw in Fig. 1d. MreB inhibitor S-(3,4-dichlorobenzyl)isothiourea (A22) was dissolved as a concentrated stock of 10 mg mL−1 in methanol and added to cells at concentrations from 1 to 100 μg mL−1 in comparison with methanol-only controls. IF-like proteins in bacteria have been identified using a protein secondary-structure prediction program coils (http://www.ch.embnet.org/software/COILS_form.html), which successfully predicts the characteristic coiled-coil domains found within these proteins (Lupas et al., 1991; Lupas, 1996).

Therefore, we consider the possibility that fish isolates of S. dysgalactiae might be differentiated from the traditional strains of GCS at the

subspecies level in future studies. In this study, we were particularly interested in whether the strains were geographically localized or clonally related to each other at the multinational level. The most common method used for typing streptococci consists of the restriction of genomic DNA with ApaI and SmaI endonucleases, followed by PFGE analysis (Green et al., 2006; Bacciaglia et al., 2007). During the course of this study, the restriction endonucleases of ApaI and SmaI were investigated to determine their suitability for usage in the BSFGE analysis click here of S. dysgalactiae. Alpelisib molecular weight Unfortunately, the SmaI genotypes comprised fragments, the number of which was too few to allow effective discrimination between isolates, at least under the operating conditions used in this study. In general, isolates whose BSFGE genotypes are highly similar to

each other, as indicated by a Dice coefficient ≥0.90, are likely to be closely related to each other genetically and epidemiologically. Moreover, the correlation of the BSFGE genotype similarity to the genomic relatedness rapidly decreases to below 70% similarity values (Struelens et al., 2001). The results obtained using the computer-generated dendrogram revealed that fingerprint variations obtained by digestion with ApaI could classify most of the isolates, including the Japanese, Taiwanese, and Chinese isolates, into one main cluster at a 70% similarity level. However, the macrorestriction genotypes of the 95985, AOD-96086-K, PP1398, PF880, and T11358 fish isolates apparently differed from those of the main cluster. In this study, we demonstrated

that the genotypes of S. dysgalactiae isolates collected from different fish species could Resveratrol be related to each other at the multinational level for the first time. To improve understanding of the epidemiology of and medical therapy for S. dysgalactiae infections, all fish streptococci should be identified to the species level and accurately tested for antimicrobial susceptibility. The authors are grateful to Dr Lauke Labrie and her aquatic animal health team of Schering-Plough Animal Health, Singapore, for kindly providing S. dysgalactiae isolates. This study was partially supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research from the Ministry of Education, Science, Culture and Sports, Japan (21580229). The first author appreciates financial support received from the Ministry of High Education, Egypt. “
“In this study, the antibacterial activity of farrerol against Staphylococcus aureus was determined. The minimum inhibitory concentrations capable of inhibiting 35 S. aureus strains ranged from 4 to 16 μg mL−1.

Conjugal transfer to L. mesenteroides M7-1 was only obtained with pRE25, albeit at very low frequency (Table 4). Gene transfer from RE25 to L. mesenteroides M7-1 has been observed before at low frequencies (Devirgiliis et al., 2009), and so the unsuccessful transfer of pRE25* from E. faecalis to L. mesenteroides is probably due to the naturally occurring low efficiency of gene transfer between these species No transconjugants were obtained with E. faecalis selleck chemicals 1528, Lactobacillus fermentum ROT1, and Staphylococcus aureus VG1 as recipients (Table 1), most probably due to plasmids incompatible to pRE25 present in those strains. The comparison of pRE25* with its parental plasmid pRE25 Epacadostat in vivo revealed

that the inserted 2.7-kb sequence did not affect the copy number of pRE25*, nor did it have a major impact on its conjugational potential. Furthermore, both pRE25* and the gfp marker were stable, showing that E. faecalis CG110/gfp/pRE25* is suitable as a marker tool to examine horizontal ABR gene transfer

in complex microbial communities using elevated experimental durations. After construction and characterization of E. faecalis CG110/gfp/pRE25*, the tool was tested in a complex microbial background for its functionality. Fresh overnight cultures of the donor strain E. faecalis CG110/gfp/pRE25*, the recipient strain L. monocytogenes 10403S, and the transconjugant L. monocytogenes 10403S/pRE25* (Table 1) were mixed at different transconjugants to donor ratios ranging from 0.2 : 1 to 2000 : 1 in complex microbiota background. The composition of this microbiota was determined by qPCR and consistent with the main groups usually encountered in infant feces (Laboratory of Food Biotechnology, ETH Zurich, unpublished data). Subsequently, donor and transconjugants were quantified by real-time PCR and plate counts. The

ratio of pRE25* to gfp quantified by real-time PCR was plotted against the ratio calculated from plate counts and showed linear correlation coefficient (R2 of >0.99) over a pRE25*/gfp ratio of more than three orders of magnitude (Fig. 2). Furthermore, differences as Casein kinase 1 low as 0.2 transconjugants per donor were detectable by qPCR, thereby elaborating the detection limit of the method. This demonstrates that the genetic markers of E. faecalis CG110/gfp/pRE25* can be quantified in complex backgrounds by qPCR and that E. faecalis CG110/gfp/pRE25* is indeed a suitable tool for quantification of HGT. Even though new technologies, for example metagenomic sequencing, yield a deep insight into the human microbiome (Qin et al., 2010), general links between DNA sequences and their transmission route within the microbiota cannot be established using such methods, making use of tagged strains and genes insurmountable for mechanistic studies. The novel strain E.

Our three keynote speakers will, we are sure, inspire us all. Their presentations will focus on behaviour change and issues of addiction. The established role of pharmacists in substance misuse (tobacco and drugs) and their emerging role in managing excessive alcohol consumption, make

these presentations particularly relevant to the conference theme and JAK inhibitor audience. In advance of the conference we would like to thank everyone who has already contributed in various ways, illustrating how successful team working can be! We thank those who have submitted scientific abstracts, the HSRPP steering committee, Pharmacy Research UK, the University of Aberdeen CPD Services Unit, and all our sponsors.  Special thanks go to the Society for the Study of Addictions which has sponsored the substance misuse workshop, including a networking lunch, and two prizes for the best substance misuse-related presentation and poster. Finally, we hope these two days will be productive and enjoyable for both new and experienced researchers. “
“Objective  To examine the views of regular pharmacy clients on pharmacist prescribing and employ agency theory in considering the relationship between the stakeholders involved. Methods  Computer assisted telephone interviews were conducted with 400 pharmacy clients recruited around Australia. Potential respondents

were identified using Palbociclib manufacturer a random number generation function in Microsoft Excel. Data were analysed with SPSS version 17 using one-way analysis of variance, principal component analysis and linear regression. The relationships between the main stakeholders involved were explored

using agency theory. Key findings  A total of 1153 answered calls recruited 400 consenting pharmacy clients. Most respondents (71%) trusted pharmacists adopting an expanded role in prescribing, however the majority (66%) supported this only after a diagnosis had been made by a doctor. Those who accepted pharmacist diagnosing and prescribing preferred that this was limited to pain management and antibiotics. Most respondents (64%) considered that expanded pharmacist prescribing would improve their access to prescription medicines, although those over 65 years of age were less supportive than Florfenicol younger respondents. Factors which contributed positively to clients’ perception of trust in an expanded prescribing role for pharmacists were identified, and improved access to medicines was found to be the strongest predictor (P < 0.0001). Conclusion  Most pharmacy clients trusted pharmacists adopting an expanded prescribing role, but preferred that this was limited to doctors performing the initial diagnosis. Agency theory would conceptualize the introduction of pharmacist prescribers, as disrupting the principal (patient) agent (doctor) relationship. Its introduction would best be facilitated by careful change management. "
“Reporting of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) may differ between countries.

sVCAM was highest in the HIV-infected group, regardless of lipid status, and E-selectin appeared to be highest in those with hyperlipidaemia, regardless of HIV status. Table 4 shows differences among all four groups for each biomarker after adjusting for age, sex, race, Tanner stage and BMI z-score. HIV-infected children had higher levels of MCP-1, fibrinogen, and sVCAM Trichostatin A manufacturer regardless of lipid status. In addition, sICAM was elevated in HIV-infected children without hyperlipidaemia compared with the reference group. The analyses were adjusted for other demographic and clinical factors (data not shown in Table 4).

We found that age was positively associated with CRP, IL-6 and fibrinogen; Hispanic and NHB ethnicity was positively associated with fibrinogen; and BMI z-score was positively associated with CRP, IL-6 and fibrinogen. For the HIV-infected children only, we analysed clinical correlates (including HIV disease-specific measures) of each biomarker of vascular dysfunction in a multivariable model (Table 5).

Results for adiponectin selleck inhibitor are not shown because, other than age and HOMA-IR (known associations), it was not independently associated with any other variables. In general, there were few associations between any of these biomarkers and age and sex, although differences were found by race/ethnicity. Compared with non-Hispanic White children, Hispanic children had higher levels of the biomarkers of inflammation (CRP and IL-6) while NHB children had lower levels of MCP-1. NHB children also had higher levels of fibrinogen, Carnitine dehydrogenase lower levels of P-selectin (measures of coagulant dysfunction and inflammation) and lower

levels of sICAM. A higher BMI z-score was associated with higher CRP and fibrinogen and lower MCP-1 and sVCAM. Unfavourable lipid profiles were generally associated with higher levels of these biomarkers of vascular dysfunction. Total cholesterol was positively associated with P-selectin and E-selectin; LDL cholesterol was positively associated with fibrinogen; and triglycerides were positively associated with MCP-1. HDL-cholesterol levels were inversely related to IL-6. Viral load was positively associated with MCP-1 and biomarkers more specific for endothelial dysfunction, including sICAM and sVCAM. Current PI and NNRTI exposures were associated with higher levels of fibrinogen and CRP, respectively. Current NRTI exposure was associated with lower levels of E-selectin. No significant relationships were found for waist or hip circumference, waist:hip ratio, total body fat, HOMA-IR or CD4 cell count and all biomarkers. Our study shows that biomarkers associated with different pathways of atherosclerosis – inflammation and coagulation and endothelial dysfunction – were higher in HIV-infected children compared with HEU children.

All animal experiments were carried out in accordance with the guidelines laid down by the animal welfare committees and the ethics committees of Niigata University. Mice deficient in γ-2 or γ-7 were produced by homologous recombination using the C57BL/6N ES cell line RENKA (Mishina & Sakimura, 2007). We isolated γ-2 (Cacng2) and γ-7 (Cacng7) genes by screening the genomic DNA library derived from the C57BL/6 mouse, and each gene fragment was yielded by PCR and sequenced. A γ-2 targeting vector contained exons 3 and 4 of Cacng2 gene with the 6.8-kb upstream and 4.8-kb downstream homologous genomic DNA fragments and the diphtheria toxin

gene for negative selection (Fig. 1A). A DNA fragment, which carried a 34-bp loxP sequence and pgk-1 promoter-driven selleck products neomycin phosphotransferase gene (pgk-neo) flanked by two Flp recognition target

(frt) sites, was inserted into the site 158 bp upstream of exon 3. The other loxP site was introduced into the site 159 bp downstream of exon 3 in order to Alpelisib supplier eliminate the exon 3 containing the two putative transmembrane domains after Cre-mediated recombination. The γ-7 targeting construct contained exons 1–3 of the Cacng7 gene with the 6.6 kb upstream, 4.5 kb downstream homologous genomic DNA (Fig. 1C). The loxP sequence and pgk-neo flanked by two frt sites was inserted into the site 340 bp upstream of exon 2. The other loxP site was introduced into the site 54 bp downstream of exon 3 in order to eliminate exons 2 and 3 after Cre-mediated recombination. Homologous recombinants were identified by Southern blot analysis under the following conditions: Kpn I-digested DNA hybridized with γ-2-5′ probe, 8.7 kb for wild-type (WT) and 8.2 kb for targeted allele; EcoR V-digested DNA hybridized with γ-2-3′ probe, 12.2 kb for WT and 10.2 kb for targeted allele; EcoR I-digested DNA hybridized with neo probe, 7.2 kb for γ-2-targeted allele; Spe I-digested DNA hybridized with γ-7-5′ probe, 20.3 kb for WT and 16 kb for targeted allele; EcoR I-digested DNA hybridized with γ-7-3′ probe, 8.2 kb for WT and 9.3 kb

for targeted allele; Hinc II-digested DNA hybridized with neo probe, 11 kb for γ-7-targeted allele. ES cell clones with correct recombination were used to yield chimeric mice as described Levetiracetam previously (Fukaya et al., 2006). Chimeric mice were mated with C57BL/6 mice, and offspring were further crossed with TLCN-Cre mice (Nakamura et al., 2001; Fuse et al., 2004) to yield heterozygous KO mice (Fig. 1B and D). Homozygous γ-2- and γ-7-KO mice were obtained by crossing heterozygous pairs. The first offspring was genotyped by Southern blotting under the following conditions: EcoR I-digested DNA hybridized with γ-2-inner probe, 7.2 kb for WT and 6.7 kb for KO allele; EcoR I-digested DNA hybridized with γ-7-3′ probe, 8.2 kb for WT and 7.2 kb for KO allele.

Given that the amplitude of recorded currents was relatively find more small (usually < 100 pA), the maximal voltage error in our voltage-clamp experiments was < 3 mV. Unless otherwise stated, all experiments were performed in the continuous presence of APV (50 μm) or MK801 (20 μm), CNQX (10 μm), gabazine (10 μm) and CGP55845 (1 μm) in order to block NMDA, AMPA, GABAA and GABAB receptors, respectively. In order to optimally isolate the outward SK current from KCa1, M-type and delayed rectifier K+ currents, 5 mm tetraethylammonium (TEA) was added to the superfusate

in voltage-clamp experiments (Sailer et al., 2002; Pedarzani et al., 2005). In slices, this concentration of TEA only slightly affects SK channels whereas it fully blocks other currents which would otherwise contaminate the SK currents (Blatz & Magleby, 1986; Lang & Ritchie, 1990; Leinders & Vijverberg, 1992; see Fig. 3). Neurons were sampled in the same region as described above. Flow rate was the same as above, but temperature was set slightly higher (34.0 ± 0.5 °C). Crizotinib mw Structures were visualized using a binocular microscope. The dorsal raphe nucleus was identified as a semilucent region, dorsal to the fasciculus longitudinalis medialis (Paxinos & Watson, 1998). Intracellular electrodes were also pulled using

a P-87 micropipette puller and borosilicate glass capillary tubing (1.0 mm OD, 0.5 mm ID; Prism capillaries, Dagan, Minneapolis, MN, USA). They were filled with 2 m KCl (resistance 70–150 MΩ). All recordings were made in the bridge-balance mode, using an NPI BA-1S amplifier (NPI Electronic GmbH, Tamm, Germany). Membrane potentials and injected currents were

digitized by a Powerlab 4/30 converter and recorded using LabChart7 (AD Instruments, Spechbach, Germany). The accuracy of the voltage measurement was checked by withdrawing the electrode from the neuron at the end of the recording. The measured voltage lay between −3 and +3 mV in all cases. No correction was made for these small errors. Membrane potential was set at −60 mV Avelestat (AZD9668) using a continuous direct current injection (−20 to +20 pA, depending on the cell). Action potentials were evoked by short (3-ms) depolarizing pulses (+500–900 pA) using a Master-8 stimulator (A.M.P.I., Jerusalem, Israel). Drug effects on the mAHP were quantified as follows: the control amplitude of the mAHP was defined as the difference in mV between the value of membrane potential 70 ms after the peak of the action potential in control conditions and during superfusion of 300 nm apamin or 100 μm bicuculline methiodide (BMI, which has been shown to fully block SK channels at this concentration: Seutin & Johnson, 1999). Values of this parameter were monitored each minute during superfusion of various Ca2+ channel blockers. Concentration–response curves were analysed using GraphPad Prism (GraphPad Software,Inc., San Diego, CA, USA).

The Flavobacterium strains studied here (Table 1) were obtained as part of a large study into the diversity of heterotrophic bacteria in microbial mats from Antarctica (Peeters et al., submitted). selleck screening library The samples used in that study originated from a

terrestrial sample, taken in the close neighbourhood of the Princess Elisabeth Station in Utsteinen, Dronning Maud Land (Peeters et al., 2011a), and microbial mat samples from lakes in the Transantarctic Mountains (Peeters et al., 2011b), the Schirmacher Oasis and on Pourquoi-Pas Island (Antarctic Peninsula) (for details, see Table 1). In these previous studies, isolates were first grouped by rep-PCR fingerprinting and representatives of all rep-types were tentatively identified by full or partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing (Peeters

et al., 2011a; Peeters et al., 2011b; Peeters et al., submitted). Several of these strains were identified as Flavobacterium and 33 of these were used in this study (Table 1). To elucidate their phylogenetic relationships, type strains of closely related Flavobacterium species were also included (Table 2). The complete 16S rRNA gene sequences of four Antarctic Flavobacterium isolates were available from previous studies (Peeters et al., 2011a, 2011b). The 16S rRNA genes of the remaining 29 Antarctic Flavobacterium isolates were only partially sequenced (400 bp) (Peeters et Akt inhibitor al., submitted). These sequences were completed in this study (accession numbers listed in Table 1) using the same method as that described before (Vancanneyt et al., 2004). A multiple sequence alignment of all complete 16S rRNA gene sequences was performed using the bionumerics (version 5.1.) software package (Applied-Maths)

and a region of 912 bp, containing good sequence data for all strains, was delimited for further analysis. After visual inspection, distances were calculated using the Kimura-2 correction. A neighbour-joining dendrogram Selleckchem Osimertinib (Saitou & Nei, 1987) was constructed and bootstrapping analysis was performed using 500 bootstrap replicates. A maximum likelihood dendrogram was calculated using the program phyml (Guindon & Gascuel, 2003). The reliability of the tree was checked using the approximate likelihood ratio test (aLRT) method (Anisimova & Gascuel, 2006). For F. johnsoniae, F. aquatile and Myroides odoratus the gyrB sequences were available in the EMBL database (Table 2). For the other strains used, the gyrB sequences were determined in this study. DNA preparation was carried out as described by Baele et al. (2003). Primers were designed in kodon 3.5 using all available gyrB sequences from Flavobacterium and species from closely related genera (Bacteroides, Cytophaga, Flexibacter, Terrimonas, Porphyrobacter, Parabacteroides, Salinibacter and Prevotella) in the EMBL database (September 2009).

Almost all studies were observational and only five had a comparison group, making the true effect of community testing on the outcome measures more difficult to measure compared with more traditional strategies [20, 34, 43, 55, 56]. Information on the stage at which people are diagnosed (CD4 cell count at diagnosis) is lacking and therefore it is not possible to assess Navitoclax whether patients are diagnosed earlier as a result of community testing initiatives. In evaluating

HIV testing strategies it is important that feasibility, acceptability, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness are considered and, to allow meaningful comparisons of studies, there is a need for use of comparable measures [61]. This review highlights the range of outcome measures that are used to evaluate these testing strategies. For example, in the studies included in this review, serpositivity was not always reported [21, 27, 29, 50, 57] and transfer to care of newly diagnosed individuals was rarely reported [33, 34, AG-014699 cell line 38]. Our review did not consider the costs associated with community HIV testing. This will be an important factor in implementing these strategies

and to date there have been few studies, none of which have compared the cost of testing in the community with that of testing in more traditional services [41, 62-64]. The cost-effectiveness of community HIV testing for MSM has been considered in a recent review, which also found limited evidence [65]. This review has shown that community HIV testing strategies provide an acceptable alternative to HIV testing

in healthcare settings and are feasible to implement. However, these strategies require careful planning to ensure that they reach the population most at need of alternative testing venues and are able to transfer any individuals newly diagnosed with HIV into appropriate treatment and care pathways. “
“We examined whether Oxalosuccinic acid determinants of disease progression and causes of death differ between injecting drug users (IDUs) and non-IDUs who initiate combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). The ART Cohort Collaboration combines data from participating cohort studies on cART-naïve adults from cART initiation. We used Cox models to estimate hazard ratios for death and AIDS among IDUs and non-IDUs. The cumulative incidence of specific causes of death was calculated and compared using methods that allow for competing risks. Data on 6269 IDUs and 37 774 non-IDUs were analysed. Compared with non-IDUs, a lower proportion of IDUs initiated cART with a CD4 cell count <200 cells/μL or had a prior diagnosis of AIDS. Mortality rates were higher in IDUs than in non-IDUs (2.08 vs. 1.04 per 100 person-years, respectively; P<0.001). Lower baseline CD4 cell count, higher baseline HIV viral load, clinical AIDS at baseline, and later year of cART initiation were associated with disease progression in both groups.